The Effect Of Glucose On The Glucose Of Glucose

The liver synthesizes glycogen from glucose which is process called glycogenesis. After that process, glycogen or glucose must be converted to glucose-6-phosphate before energy can be generated. Glucose-1-phosphate is converted to glucose-6-phosphate. Glycolysis requires 10 to 12 enzymatic reactions for the breakdown of glycogen to pyruvic acid, which is then converted to lactic acid. All steps in the pathway and all of the enzymes involved operate within the cell cytoplasm. (Wilmore, J.) For each glycogen broken down, the result is 3 molecules of ATP.

Cellular respiration is the method by which an organism converts carbon based fuel and oxygen into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) the source of energy for cells, carbon dioxide and water (Open Learning Initiative, 2015, pg.140; Respiration, Cellular, 2014, pg.3737). Moreover, the cellular respiration process occurs in three major steps: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport (Respiration, Cellular, 2014, pg.3737). During the glycolysis stage, inside the mitochondria of the cell, glucose is broken down into pyruvate (a three carbon sugar) which releases energy in the form of a net gain of two ATP molecules (four total are produced but two are consumed during the process) (Open Learning Initiative, 2015, pg.141; Respiration, Cellular, 2014, pg.3737). Next, during the Krebs cycle, inside the mitochondrial cellular matrix, the pyruvate from the previous cycle is transformed into acetyl CoA after which it undergoes a process where the acetyl CoA is converted into carbon dioxide and water via oxidization resulting in the

2000. Very little energy is produced through this pathway, but the energy is gained very quickly. Once pyruvate is formed, it has two fates: conversion to lactate or conversion into metabolic intermediary molecule called acetyl co enzyme A (acetyl-CoA), and this enters the mitochondria for oxidation and the production of more ATP, Robergs & Roberts 1997. Conversion to lactate occurs when the demand for oxygen is greater than the supply, so for example during anaerobic exercise. Conversely, when there is enough oxygen available to meet the muscles needs, pyruvate, via the acetyl CoA) enters the mitochondria and goes through the aerobic metabolism.

4. The first two steps of fructose metabolism in the liver is fructose is broken down by fructokinase into fructose -1-phosphate substrate and then Aldolase B converts fructose-1-phostpate into DHAP-glyeraldehyde product. At this step, it can go into glycolysis and make ATP or gluconegenesis to eventually make glycogen (Hudon-Miller, 2012).

Fructose enters the metabolic pathway by first being phosphorylated which means the addition of a phosphate group. The enzyme responsible for this is fructokinase which is found in the liver. This reaction forms fructose-1-phosphate. Fructose-1-phosphate must be broken down by a second enzyme called aldolase

Galactose and fructose are products of carbohydrate digestion and are converted to glucose in the hepatocyte or liver cell.1 The liver then stores glucose as glycogen by undergoing glycogenesis and then returns it to the blood when glucose levels become low by undergoing glycogenolysis.1 The liver also produces “new” glucose from gluconeogenesis from precursors such as lactic acid, glycogenic amino acids, and intermediates

In the modern society people live in today, people have started to take in good cuisines. It became more than just a necessity. Eating and consuming foods are required for every individual as people need it to survive, but too much can be taken in which then, results in harming the body. Desserts such as cake and ice cream are sweet because they have a high concentration of sugar. Sugar comes in many forms such as glucose, fructose, maltose, and galactose. An important sugar, glucose, is made up of one sugar molecule. Glucose stores ATP and uses it to maintain homeostasis. (Food Insight, 2015). ATP is energy source and comes from in taking food. It is also a source of energy for cells throughout the body. This energy helps the cells carry out metabolism, synthesis of macromolecules, and active transport. (Live Strong, 2015). Glucose is also needed to execute several functions of the human body, such as brain function and regulation of food intake. When people intake sugars, their bodies break the sugar down into glucose and too much glucose can harm the body resulting in diabetes (Anderson et al, 2002).

In the cell’s cytoplasm, a molecule of glucose is split into 2 pyruvate molecules and 2 ATP molecules are formed.

Cellular respiration makes ATP for animal cells, and photosynthesis makes sugars for plant cells. Respiration starts with glucose undergoing the reactions of glycolysis in the cytosol. The net outcomes of glycolysis are two ATP molecules, two NADH molecules, and two pyruvate molecules. The mechanism for making ATP in glycolysis is called substrate-level phosphorylation. The pyruvate molecules left at the end of glycolysis go on to the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria. At the end of the Krebs cycle, all of the carbon atoms of the glucose have been released as carbon dioxide, and more of the energy that was in the glucose molecule has been saved in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. The last part of respiration is called oxidative phosphorylation, which also happens in the mitochondria.

When blood sugar levels fall below the optimal level, for example between a meal or during exercise, then the alpha cells will be alerted of this drop in glucose levels by electrical triggers within the cells and glucagon will be released from the alpha cells in the pancreas into the bloodstream. Glucagon acts like insulin in the way in which it binds to the active site of the appropriate receptors that are located on the outside of the membrane of the liver cells and then proceeds to stimulate a series of reaction pathways within the liver cells that result in the activation of an enzyme called glycogen phosphorylase. Unlike the enzyme that is activated by insulin (glycogen synthase) which results in the formation of glycogen polymers, glycogen phosphorylase works to in the opposing manner to catalyse the breakdown of the glycogen polymers back into glucose molecules. This process continues until enough glucose is produced by the breakdown of glycogen polymers that it disrupts the concentration gradient, as there is now a higher level of glucose molecules within the cell than in the bloodstream. The glucose molecules then move out of the cell through the cell membrane by facilitated diffusion through the glucose transporters and into the bloodstream

During fructose metabolism, the liver expresses predominantly glucokinase, which is hexokinase type IV and specific for glucose as the substrate. Such a pattern of expression requires KHK to supply fructose into hepatic glycolysis. The hepatic KHK-C phosphorylates fructose acts on C–1 to produce fructose-1-phosphate, F1P which is in turn hydrolyzed

The cause was to determine if all sugars in different items such as fruit, candy, and regular sugar are the same sugar or not. The things tested in this experiment were an orange, Hershey bar, and regular sugar. The purpose was chosen to figure out if the sugars that we eat in our food are all the same.

Figure 1. The variations of the catalysis pathways to reduce the overloading of glycogen in the body that cause diseases.

On the date of December 30th, 2015 an African American male, sixteen years of age, was admitted to Sinai-Grace Hospital. This young man had been brought in by his mother, due to him complaining of PolyUria (Frequent or Excessive Urination) and PolyDipsia (Excessive Thirst). Before being admitted to Sinai-Grace hospital this young man sat in Botsford Hospital waiting room for over 7 hours due to his illness not being priority even though he was teetering on the cusp of appendage amputation. Once finally admitted to Sinai-Grace they noticed he had surpassed standard adolescent glucose levels and achieved a 13.1 A1C (Glycated hemoglobin). Why did this young man even get this far along in the chain of diabetes that he could have died? Was it his

cell. The first step, glycolysis is the process by which each molecule of glucose is converted to