Unit 3 Biomolecules In Cells

A macromolecule is a large molecule composed of small molecular units called monomers that are linked to together in long chains called polymers. Lipids are hydrophobic, non polar macromolecules that insulate organs, store energy, and make up cell membranes. Their monomers are called triglycerides. Proteins are another example of macromolecules. Made up of monomers called amino acids held together by peptide bonds, proteins provide structural support, defense, and cell regulation. The third macromolecule that is going to be tested for are carbohydrates. Carbohydrates, such as sugars and starches, are needed for energy storage and are made up of monomers called monosaccharides.

“Bacterial illness is a result of complex interactions between bacteria and the host. During evolution, humans developed many ways to protect themselves against bacterial pathogens. On the other hand, bacteria have developed strategies to evade, subvert or circumvent these defenses” (Sousa, 2003) “One of the most important characteristics of bacterial pathogenicity is the various strategies developed by prokaryotic organisms to use host molecules for their own benefit” (Sousa, 2003). “To accomplish this, bacteria have evolved elaborate control mechanisms to turn genes on and off, varying the transcriptional activator or

Cellular respiration is the series of metabolic process by which living cells produce energy through the oxidation of organic substances. Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria. Fermentation is the process by which complex organic compounds such as glucose, are broken down by the action of enzymes into simpler compounds without the use of oxygen. The significance of these pathways for organisms is to allow for an organism to be able to generate ATP. Some organism that undergo cellular respiration are bacteria and fungi. Some organism that undergo fermentation are yeast and muscle cells. In cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized and releases energy. In cellular respiration, glucose produces ATP and 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate. The pyruvate is then further broken down in the mitochondria where it becomes oxidized and releases CO2 (Upadhyaya 2014). In the fermentation process oxygen does not play a part. This process converts glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP. From there pyruvate breaks down into CO2 and acetaldehyde (Upadhyaya 2014) Monosaccharides are known as simple sugars and their main function is being the source of energy for organisms. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond and their primary function is to provide food to monosaccharides. Some disaccharides

Monosaccharides, also known as simple sugars, are the simplest form of carbohydrates and can either function alone or become a monomer for disaccharides or polysaccharides. Its function is to fuel molecules in a living cell as well as be used as raw materials for the synthesis of amino and fatty acids. It is formed of a singular sugar formula of CH2O. Disaccharides are used as an energy source for organisms and made up of two

Figure 2: As the unknown was identified as galactose or lactose and the main difference between them was that galactose was monosaccharide, while lactose was disaccharide, Barfoed’s test was performed next. As expected, all monosacharides (fructose, galactose, glucose, xylose) formed a small amount

Al., 2015) and are better known as starches and sugars. Their molecular compound is made of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen; very often in a Cn(H20)n ratio. (Reese, Et. Al., 2015) Monosaccharides (e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose) are the monomers of carbohydrates.

First of all, let’s discuss the carbohydrate molecule, which contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. Carbohydrates are the most important source of energy for our body and our digestive system changes carbohydrates into glucose (sugar). Carbohydrates contain monosaccharides (one simple sugar), disaccharides (two simple sugars), and polysaccharides (many simple sugars). These simple sugars are joined by glycosidic bonds to form

Out of the four classes of macromolecule I chose carbohydrates, due to my unhealthy obsession with eating them. Carbohydrates, or carbs, are a source of dietary energy for plants and animals. It is made of one or more monosaccharides, which are the smallest sugar molecules (Simon, E.J. (2017). Biology: The Core (2nd Edition). Retrieved from https://etext.pearson.com). There are two monosaccharides that are common, which are glucose and fructose. Both happen to be types of sugar that the body can consume. If they were to combine, glucose and fructose would make sucrose and become a disaccharide, which is two sugars joined by dehydration.

Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They have a variety of functions including storage form of energy inside the body, and also serve a structural component of many organisms, including cell wall of bacteria, the exoskeleton of many insects. Monosaccharides can range from simple sugars to very large molecules according to the number of carbon atoms they contain, and can also be classified by the type of carbonyl (C=0) group they have. Carbohydrates with an aldehyde (CH=0) group are termed aldoses, whereas those with keto (C=0) groups are known as ketoses (Champe, Harvey and Ferrier, 2005). Disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides contain monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds.

Sucrose, commonly referred to as ‘sugar’, is a carbohydrate molecule consisting of 12 carbon atoms, 22 hydrogen atoms and 11 oxygen atoms, C12H22O11 (Cole et al, 2015). Sucrose is a complex disaccharide molecule comprised of two simpler monosaccharide sugars: glucose and fructose. The World Sugar Research Organisation (2012) states that sugar is vital in the daily intake of food, as it provides the energy to carry out cellular processes once it is broken down and absorbed by the small intestine and transported around the body through the blood stream. The World Health Organisation (2015) suggests the average adult meeting the recommended 8700kJ daily intake

DNA is a molecule that converts an organisms genetic blueprint. Every person’s body has the same DNA. Apportion of your DNA is located in the cells nucleus, but a small portion of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria. The DNA structure is very important because it defines who we are and how we look. The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar. human DNA have 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same as in all the humans in the world. DNA is a nucleic acid; proteins and carbohydrates, nucleic acids compose the three major macromolecules for all known

. Polysaccharides, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids are enzymes responsible for the chemical digestion of each of the macromolecules. Polysaccharides are secreted by carbohydrates in the small intestine and is produced by the pancreas with monosaccharides. Proteins break down to amino acids that get secreted first by the stomach and finish the process in the small intestine. Fats are secreted by small intestine and the process of the conversion of fats is monoglycerides and fatty acids, nucleic acids are broken down to nucleotides which are DNA and RNA that have been secreted by the small intestine.

A final example of a polysaccharide is cellulose which is the main constituent of plant cell walls. It has adjacent chains of long, unbranched polymers of glucose which bond together to form micro fibrils. These layers are orientated in different directions and interwoven providing rigid cell wall with gaps in layers to provide permeability. The carbohydrate glucose is formed in the light-independent reaction which occurs in the stroma. Carbon dioxide combines with RuBP to form a highly unstable 6-carbon compound which splits in to two glycerate-3-phosphates which is then reduced to form two trios phosphate. This can either be recycled back to RuBP or go on to synthesise glucose. In conclusion, carbohydrates are essential for the storage of energy, structural support for example as the backbone of DNA and are an intermediate in respiration e.g. glyceraldehydes.

1) Monosacchrides: Mono means single and saccharides refer to sugar. These are the simple form of carbohydrates that consists carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 (Ahmed 2014).

Living organisms need to make energy from food in order to allow rapid cell reproduction and maintain life. Glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids are utilized to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a coenzyme used for an energy carrier. The primary source of carbon and energy for humans and most eukaryotes is glucose [1]. But, since it is polar in nature, glucose cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane’s lipid bilayer. This causes the need for glucose to be transported by a glucose transporter, on the plasma membrane, into the cell. After the uptake of glucose, glycolysis is used to convert the glucose into pyruvate. Glycolysis is a pathway that includes ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions.