Aconitase Research Paper

In contrast, there are four metabolic stages happened in cellular respiration, which are the glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, in which catabolism is begun by breaking down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. Two molecules of ATP are produced too. Some of they either enter the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) or the electron transport chain, or go into lactic acid cycle if there is not enough oxygen, which produces lactic acid. The citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, which completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate into carbon dioxide. The citric acid cycle produced some more ATPs and other molecules called NADPH and FADPH. After this, electrons are passed to the electron transport chain through

The reaction for this process is: C6H12 O6 → 2C2H5 OH + 2CO2 + ATP This process also uses the glycolysis stage of respiration, however it can not use the Krebs cycle or electron transport as oxygen is required. Therefore without oxygen it allows cells to make small amounts of ATP.

There are two types of cellular respiration, aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic respiration occurs when there is oxygen present and in the mitochondria (in eukaryotic cells) and the cytoplasm (in prokaryotic cells). Aerobic respiration requires oxygen; it proceeds through the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle is a cycle of producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and converting ADP to thirty-four ATPs. Anaerobic respiration is known as a process called fermentation. It occurs in the cytoplasm and molecules do not enter the mitochondria for further breakdown. This process helps to produce alcohol in yeast and plants, and lactate in animals. Only two ATPs are produced through this process. In yeast fermentation is used to make beer, wine, and whiskey.

These results shown from this experiment led us to conclude that enzymes work best at certain pH rates. For this particular enzyme, pH 7 worked best. When compared to high levels of pH, the lower levels worked better. The wrong level of pH can denature enzymes; therefore finding the right level is essential. The independent variable was the amount of pH, and the dependent being the rate of oxygen. The results are reliable as they are reinforced by the fact that enzymes typically work best at neutral pH

Aerobic respiration happens only when oxygen is presented in the cell. Aerobic respiration starts with pyruvate crossing into the mitochondria. When it passes through, a Coenzyme A will attach to it producing Acetyl CoA, CO2, and NADH. Acetyl CoA will enter into the Krebs cycle. In the Krebs cycle Acetyl CoA will bound with Oxaloacetic Acid (OAA), a four carbon molecule, producing the six carbon molecule, Citric Acid. Citric Acid will reorganize into Isocitrate. This will lose a CO2 and make a NADH turning itself into alpha ketoglutarate, a five carbon molecule. Alpha ketoglutarate will turn into an unstable four carbon molecule, which attaches to CoA making succinyl CoA. During that process a CO2 and NADH is made. An ATP is made when CoA leaves and creates Succinate. This molecule is turned into Fumarate, creating two FADH2 in the process. Then Fumarate is turned into Malate then into OAA making two NADH. Only two ATP is produced in Krebs cycle but the resulting NADHs and FADH2s are passed through an electron transport chain and ATP synthase. When the molecules passes through that cycle a total of 28 ATP molecules are produced. In all aerobic respiration produces 32 ATP and waste products of H2O and

The citric acid cycle, also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid, TCA, cycle, a series of chemical reactions that generates energy from the oxidation of acetate into chemical energy and carbon dioxide in the form of ATP. It also provides NADH, which is a reducing agent that is very common in biochemical reactions. This cycle is constantly supplied with new carbon. This comes in from acetyl-CoA, which starts the entire process of the citric acid cycle. The first step of the citric acid cycle is the aldol condensation of oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA and water with the enzyme citrate synthase in order to form citrate and CoA-SH. The next step is the dehydration of citrate with the enzyme aconitase in order to form cis-aconitate and water. Then comes the hydration of cis-Aconitate and water with the enzyme aconitase in order to form isocitrate. The next is the oxidation of isocitrate and NAD+ with the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase in order to form oxalosuccinate and NADH and H+. Then, there is the decarboxylation of oxalosuccinate with the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase in order to form alpha-ketoglutarate and carbon dioxide. Next, there is the oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate and NAD+ and CoA-SH with the enzyme alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase in order to form succinyl-CoA and NADH and H+ and carbon dioxide. The next step is the substrate-level phosphorylation of succinyl-CoA and GDP and Pi with the enzyme succinyl-CoA synthetase in order to form succinate and CoA-SH and GTP. Then, there is the oxidation of succinate and ubiquinone with the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase in order to form fumarate and ubiquinol. Next, is the hydration of fumarate and water with the enzyme fumarase in order to form L-malate. The final step is the oxidation of L-malate and NAD+ with the enzyme malate dehydrogenase in order to form oxaloacetate and NADH and H+. Two cycles are required for every single glucose molecule because two acetyl Co-A molecules

The acetyl group (2C) of acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate (4C), this produces citrate (6C) which then goes through a sequence of electron yielding oxidation reactions, during which two CO2 molecules are released, restoring oxaloacetate. This is then used in the next cycle by re binding to another acetyl group. In the process the elections produced are transferred to electron carriers and are later used by the electron transport chains to drive proton pumps to generate ATP. The function of the citric acid cycle is the harvesting of high-energy electrons from carbon fuels.

Glycolysis is followed by the Krebs cycle, however, this stage does require oxygen and takes place in the mitochondria. During the Krebs cycle, pyuvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions. This begins when pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis enters the mitochondria. As the cycle continues, citric acid is broken down into a 4-carbon molecule and more carbon dioxide is released. Then, high-energy electrons are passed to electron carriers and taken to the electron transport chain. All this produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH, and 4 CO2 molecules.

Aldolase is an enzyme that consists of four polypeptide chains that are identical. The enzyme itself is commonly found in a rabbit muscle tissue where it is recruited to catalyse the breakdown of the fructose1,6-biphosphate to two products; dihydroxyacetone and glyceraldehyde

The process that generates the most ATPs is fatty acid oxidation. This is because β-oxidation of palmitate which is a common saturated fatty acids in most living organisms which could produce 106 net yield of ATPs.palmitate with its 16 carbon give below overall reaction: C 16:0-CoA + 7 FAD + 7 NAD+ + 7 H20 + 7 CoA → 8 acetyl-CoA + 7 FADH2 + 7 NADH + 7 H+ 2.5 ATPs per NADH, 1.5 ATPs per FADH2 and 10 ATPs per acetyl CoA produced while 2 ATPs consumed during the activation of palmitate to acyl-CoA gives net yield of 106 ATPs. As for citric acid cycle, oxidation of 1 acetyl-CoA can give a total of 10 ATPs and it is based on the below equation: Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD+ + Q + GDP + Pi +2 H20

Acropora Sp are from the subclass Zoantharia and the Order Scleractinia. Acropora Sp inhibit most coral reefs, found in upper reef slopes, where there is strong current, and some species can also be found in deep water, lagoons and silted water. They are also the most tolerant of the coral species as they could adapt easily to salinity changes, changing temperature, water movement and even lighting. Acropora Sp has also been used to be cultivated in nurseries which in turn helps conserve the wild population in the world’s reef. (http://animal-world.com/Aquarium-Coral-Reefs/Keeping-Acropora-Corals)

The two carbon molecule bonds four carbon molecule called oxaloacete forming a carbon molecule knew as citrate. The second step reaction is classified as oxidation/reductions reactions. This process is formed by two molecule of CO2 and one molecule of ATP. The cycle electrons reduce NAD and FAD, which join the H+ ions to form NADH and FADH2, this result to an extra NADH being formed during the transition. In the mitochondrion, four molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2 are produced for each molecule of pyruvate, two molecules of pyruyate enter the matrix for each molecule of oxidized glucose, as a result of these eight molecules of NADH+ two molecules are produced. Six molecules of NADH+, molecules of FADH2 and two molecules of ATP synthesize itself in Krebs cycle. As a result, no oxygen is used in the described reactions. During chimiosmosis, oxygen only plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation. The next step is the electron transport; the electrons are stored on NADH and FADH2 and are used to produce ATP. Electron transport chain is essential to make most ATP produced in cellular respiration. The NADH and FAD2 from the Krebs cycle drop their electrons at the beginning of the transport chain. When the electrons move along the electron transport chain, it gives power to pump the hydrogen along the membrane from the matrix into the intermediate space. This process forms a gradient concentration forcing the hydrogen through ATP syntheses attaching

Acromegaly is a disorder involving the hormones when the pituitary gland puts out too much of the growth hormone (GH) during adulthood. This results in noticeably enlarged bones and extremities. Acromegaly is actually the Greek word for “extremities” and “enlargement”, resembling the most common symptoms. It is an uncommon disorder affecting mostly middle aged men and women and occurs in about 6 in every 100,000 adults.

This complex converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA, which is necessary for the initiation of the Krebs cycle that ultimately leads to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production. When thiamin is depleted, the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA is blocked, promoting pyruvate accumulation in the cytosol and eventual lactate production (Gunnerson & Harvey, 2016). The anaerobic pathway of converting pyruvate to lactate is inefficient, producing only 2 moles of ATP compared to the 30 moles of ATP produced during aerobic respiration. Additionally, a lack of ATP following thiamin deficiency shifts energy metabolism to fat stores, which produces ketones for the production of acetyl CoA. However, fat stores are eventually depleted in chronic thiamin deficiency (Dinicolantonio et al.,

Cellular respiration is a procedure that most living life forms experience to make and get chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The energy is synthesized in three separate phases of cellular respiration: glycolysis, citrus extract cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are both anaerobic pathways because they do not bother with oxygen to form energy. The electron transport chain however, is aerobic due to its use of oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidative phosphorylation is the procedure in which ATP particles are created with the help of oxygen atoms (Campbell, 2009, p. 93). During which, organic food molecules are oxidized to synthesize ATP used to drive the metabolic reactions necessary to maintain the organism’s physical integrity and to support all its activities (Campbell, 2009, pp. 102-103).