Arena Virus

The article first addresses the issue of whether or not to consider viruses as living. Although viruses used to be thought of as being biological chemicals due to the fact that they consist of nucleic acids

* Flaviviruses: share a common size (40-60nm), symmetry (enveloped, icosahedral nucleocapsid), nucleic acid (positive-sense, single stranded RNA approximately 10,000-11,000 bases), and appearance in the electron microscope. Therefore, images of West Nile virus are representative for this group of viruses.

Viruses are microscopic particles that invade and take over both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. They consist of two structures, which are the nucleic acid and capsid. The nucleic acid contains all genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA, and is enclosed in the capsid, which is the protein coating that helps the virus attach to and penetrate the host cell. In some cases, certain viruses have a membrane surrounding the capsid, called an envelope. This structure allows viruses to become more stealthy and protected. There are two cycles in which a virus can go into: lytic and lysogenic. The lytic cycle consists of the virus attaching to a cell, injecting its DNA, and creating more viruses, which proceed to destroy the host. On the other hand, the lysogenic cycle includes the virus attaching to the cell, injecting its DNA, which combines with the cell’s DNA in order for it to become provirus. Then, the provirus DNA may eventually switch to the lytic cycle and destroy the host.

The virus fuses with the cell’s plasma membrane. The capsid proteins are removed, releasing the viral proteins and RNA. Reverse transcriptase catalyzes the synthesis of a DNA strand complementary to the viral RNA. Reverse transcriptase catalyzes the synthesis of a second DNA strand complementary to the first. The double-stranded DNA is incorporated as a provirus into the cell’s DNA. Proviral genes are transcribed into RNA molecules, which serve as genomes for the next viral generation and as mRNAs for translation into viral proteins. The viral proteins include capsid proteins and reverse transcriptase (made in the cytosol) and envelope glycoproteins (made in the ER). Vesicles transport the glycoproteins from the ER to the cell’s plasma membrane. Capsids are assembled around viral genomes and reverse transcriptase molecules. New viruses bud off from the host cell.

Sherin Cheriyan, majoring in Biology and on the Physician Assistant Track at Seton Hall University is a member of the Martin Luther King Jr. Scholarship Association, Class of 2019. A resident of Newington, Connecticut, she hopes to address racial stereotypes, gender discrimination, celebrate diversity, and help underprivileged communities through Martin Luther King Jr. Scholarship programs. The Magnum Opus she intends to publish is a program centered on younger children to bring awareness to stereotypes in society and the psychological effects of stereotypes on the victims of racism. The program will include academic workshops, including tests and role play to bring awareness to how conscious and unconscious racism can affect a person and their

The SH (small hydrophobic) protein, matrix protein (M), and the M2 protein are envelope-associated proteins that are not involved in viral attachment or syncytium formation (3). Other proteins such as the nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), and the large nucleoprotein (L) are in the nucleocapsid. NS-1 and NS-2 are non-structure protein that is only found in the infected cells but not present in virions (3).

Real time RT-PCR and other molecular tests can also be an effective diagnostic tools. The molecular tests detect viral genetic material in respiratory system with swab samples collected from the throat and nasal cavity to correctly identify the infection.

PCR finds the DNA of the HSV virus, and can also tell if it’s type 1 or 2.

Routine confirmation of coronavirus infection based on detection of unique sequences of viral RNA by real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and sequencing. Any testing for the presence of this virus must be performed in appropriately equipped laboratories by staff trained in the pertinent technical and safety procedures. A number of RT-PCR assays that are specific for the coronavirus develop and publish. Currently described tests include an assay targeting upstream of the E protein gene (upE)1 and assays targeting the open reading frame 1b (ORF 1b) gene1 and the open reading frame 1a (ORF 1a) gene2. The assay for the upE target is considered highly sensitive, with the ORF 1a assay considered of equal sensitivity. The ORF 1b assay is considered less sensitive than the ORF 1a assay but may be more specific (12).

There are two different kinds of lab tests, Molecular tests and Serology tests. A Molecular test is looking for evidence of an active infection of MERS-CoV. Molecular tests are used to diagnose patients who are thought to be infected with MERS-CoV because of their symptoms. Real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT- PCR) assays are molecular tests that are used to find specific RNA that come from the virus in a host's body. This test converts the viral RNA into its DNA. After it is converted, you look at one of MERS-CoV's DNAs and see if it matches. If it does, this is a positive test and the patient is infected with MERS. The success of the test depends on several things. These factors include the experience of the lab workers, the environment (no contamination), and the condition and type of the specimens being tested. When doing this test, multiple specimens are recommended to get to best result. However, a serology test is used in a different way. It is made to detect previous infection in patients may have had the virus. To do this, the serology test looks for antibodies to MERS-CoV. "Antibodies are proteins produced by the body's immune system to attack and kill viruses, bacteria, and other microbes during infection." If the test finds antibodies to MERS-CoV it proves that the patient has previously been infected with the virus and now has an immune response. It has one screening test and two confirmatory tests to find antibodies to MERS-CoV. The screening part is called enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELIZA) and the confirmatory tests are called immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and microneutralhzation assay to check for the positive result. (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome,

In the wild it has been found infecting many mammalian species, while in the laboratory it has been found that birds can be infected, as well as cell cultures from mammals, birds, reptiles and insects [4]. In virology, rabies virus is serotype 1 of 7 serotypes of the genus Lyssavirus, which belongs to the larger classification of rhabdoviruses. Interestingly, at least 6 of these viruses have been found in bats [10]. The rabies virus is an enveloped virus in the Rhabdoviridae family with a cylindrical morphology. The structure of this virus is unique. It is a rod or bullet shaped, single-stranded, genome with negative-sense, unsegmented, and enveloped RNA virus (Fig. 1). The picture shown, outer part of the cartridge contains the matrix protein and a glycoprotein on which are located the epitopes that induce neutralizing anti-bodies

The Marburg virus was founded in 1967 when outbreaks of haemorrhagic fever started in laboratories in Marburg. “A total of 31 people became ill, including 25 laboratory workers.”(Public Health England Marburg,2014) “The laboratory workers all had contact with the blood, organs or cell-cultures from imported African green monkeys.”(Public Health England Marburg,2014) Virus belongs to the Filovirus family.” Currently there is no vaccine for the virus.”(Public Health England Marburg,2014) The Marburg virus can be transmitted through body fluids, causes severe symptoms, has treatment and can be prevented . Marburg virus affects humans and non-human primates.

AAV is a little, non-enveloped, single-stranded DNA dependovirus which belongs to the family of parvoviridae. It requires a helper virus, ideally Ad or herpes virus or on the other hand human papillomavirus or vaccinia virus to encourage effective, completely permissive AAV infection and replication (Bloom and Young, 2001). Without helper virus, AAV sets up an inactive disease and keeps up as a dormant provirus coordinated into a unique site of human chromosome 19. AAV can efficiently infect a wide variety of cell sorts furthermore contaminate both mitotic and post-mitotic, quiescent cells, through heparin sulfate proteoglycans and integrin (Summerford et al., 1999). AAV has not been connected with any human disease which in this way conquers the security concerns experienced

This little package of mayhem consists of relatively few parts. A virus is simply a protein capsule called a capsid, sometimes surrounded by an envelope, containing a genome. The genome consists of nucleic acids arranged as DNA or less commonly, RNA. Dozens of variants of this fundamental arrangement exist with differences in the structure of the capsule and the arrangement of the genome. Small differences or changes in these components allow some viruses to continue to outmaneuver researchers, while millions of dollars are spent trying to understand and eliminate them.

However forensics is not the only area that has been advanced by PCR techniques. Diseases diagnosis can be made much more accurately and quickly. The diagnosis however is not just limited to infectious diseases caused by bacteria, tumours can also be analysed. Therefore it may become apparent if it is the result of a general genetic abnormality or simply an untimely mutation. Viruses similarly can be detected if someone is infected, along with the viral load; this allows disease progression to be monitored.