1. Introduction
The following report reviews the drug 9-hydroxyrisperidone official name Paliperidone which is sold under the brand name Invega. It is also sold as a long lasting injectable (Paliperidone Palmitate) sold under the brand name Invega Sustenna and Xeplion in Europe. An examination is made on the Pharmacology information, its application in medicine, the manufacturing of the API and the side effects on the human body.
Paliperidone is available in an injection or tablet form. Paliperidone is a dopamine antagonist and is classified as a long lasting antipsychotic medication
Fig. 1
The above chart displays the trend of sales information in blue and the number of units sold in green for the second, third and fourth quarter of
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The over coat will dissolve quickly in the gastrointestinal tract. Water is then absorbed through the semipermeable membrane controlling the rate of drug delivery at a constant rate. Two orifices are drilled on each tablet using a laser. The hydrophilic properties of the “Push Layer” create the paliperidone gel that is passed through the orifices to deliver the drug.
2.1 Manufacturing Company
Janssen Pharmaceutica is a subrsidrey of Johnson and Johnson. The company employes over 35,000 people and manufacturers pharmaceuticals for Diabetes, HIV, Alzimhers and Cancer related illness. The main research areas focus on Oncology, neuroscience, immunology, infectious diseases, cardiovascular, metabolism and vaccines (Year 2015). Janssen has operations in more the 150 countries
2.2. History
Invega was first released in 2006 for the treatment of Schizophrenia in the United states of America. In 2011 Invega was approved for sale as a treatment for schizophrenia in Europe marketed as Xeplion. On the 31st of July 2009 Invega was approved for the treatment of Schizoaffective disorder with the patent expiring on the 29th of August
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2 Chemical Structure of Paliperidone.
IUPCA name is “3-[2-[4-(6-fluoro-1,2-benzoxazol-3-yl)piperidin-1-yl]ethyl]-9-hydroxy-2-methyl-6,7,8,9-tetrahydropyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-4-one”.
The molecular formula is C23H27FN4O3 and has a molar mass of 426.5 g/mol. The boiling point is 179.8 degrees Celsius with a solubility in water 48.6 mg/L at 25 degrees. The API Paliperidone is in its pure form.
6. Crystallization Properties
e. crystallization properties of the API including description of polymorphs and solvates, rystal shape, crystallization behaviour, and the crystallization process (Kaduk et al., 2016)
Please refer to the above diagram for reference. The hydrogen bond between the hydroxyl group 031-H58 and the ketone oxygen O25 is the only significant hydrogen bond in the crystal structure. There is also a very weak intermolecular hydrogen bond between C25-H50 and F7 which has been attributed to the packing of the Paliperidone crystal. Another weak intramolecular hydrogen bond C30-H57 and O25 has been attributed to the conformation of the molecule. Paliperdone is not a tightly packed molecule and only close contacts are the O-H…O hydrogen bonds which are indicated in red in the above
risperidone whereas in this one there was a fixed dose to limit breach in blinding and to facilitate comparison between similar groups, also having this fixed dosage helped prevent bias because when using a titrating schedule of dosing in a randomized trial, it tends to show bias toward a desired goal. Risperidone in this study was well tolerated and there weren’t significant differences in weight gain or sedation(13). One of the main things disliked about risperidone is its tendency to increase the incidence of dyskinesia and other extrapyramidal side effects. In this study only mild and transient dyskinesias were seen in only 3 children, however that could be due to the low fixed dosage(13) of the study.
The purpose of this paper is to go into extensive research on Alprazolam aka “Xanax” in the duration of this paper, it will be evident the impact that this drug can have on the human body and in my instances, it will be apparent not only how helpful it can be but how life damaging it can be, if not taken safely and carefully. This report will go into extensive detail on the psychodynamics of the drug as well as the pharmacokinetics. Alprazolam is quite powerful and mind altering the affects that it can have on the body can be very intense, especially if not taking carefully which is why it is vital to make sure that you take the recommended doses taken by your doctor, failure to do so can result in death.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Depakote in 1983 for epilepsy treatment, in 1995 for bipolar disorder, and in 1996 for the prevention of migraine headaches. Sold by Abbott Laboratories, the drug comes in a variety of forms: Depacon injections (valproate sodium), Depakote, Depakote CP and Depakote ER (divalproex sodium) and Depakene and Stavzor (valproic acid). The liquid form, Depacon, is less popular as it tends to make users nauseous (drugwatch.com, nd).
In experiment two, 1.48g of the unknown solid was recovered. From this mass, it was determined approximately 30mL of boiling water was needed for crystallization of acetanilide and about 121mL for phenacetin. Phenacetin would require more solvent because it is less
The product was placed in a Craig tube and several drops of hot (100°C) solvent (50% water, 50% methanol, by volume) was added and heated until all of the crystals dissolved. The Craig tube was plugged and set in an Erlenmeyer flask to cool. Crystallization was induced once the mixture was at room temperature by scratching the inner wall of the tube. It was then placed into an ice bath for ten minutes until crystallization was complete. The tube was then
The product was then suspended in 2 ml of water with a stir rod in a 50 ml Erlenmeyer flask and heated to boiling. Water was added in one milliliter increments until all the product was dissolved (18 ml added total). The saturated solution was allowed to slowly cool, and gradual white crystal formation was observed. Recrystallized product was collected once more by suction filtration with the Hirsch funnel once crystallization ceased. Collected product dried on a watch glass for a week, weighed 0.14 g (1.2 mmol), and the melting point was 139°-141°
Rather than seeing a rise in aggressive behavior, a substantial decrease in such behaviors was noted:
Risperdal is the second atypical antipsychotic medication that contains risperidone. (Ingersoll & Rak, 2016, p. 175). The molecular formula is made up of C23H27FN4O2 with a molecular weight of 410.49. The structural formula is:
An NMR spectrum was also taken for our product sample which was close to the ideal but was a little off. Ideally there should be five peaks for the five chemical shifts from the five hydrogen groups on the product structure. The first peak should occur in the mid six ppm and can be described as a quartet. The second peak should occur at a ppm in the high 6s and should be another quartet. The third peak should be a triplet occurring at a low 7ppm. The fourth peak should be close by to the third, being another triplet. Finally, the fifth peak should be a doublet occurring at a mid 7ppm. The ppms for the ideal and the actual differ greatly in the fact that they span from approximately 5.3-6.25 instead of the ideal 6.5-7.5. It is fact that chemical shifts caused by benzene rings occur in the 6 to 8 ppm range, thus the nmr we received as a result can be somewhat doubted.. Ideally the first and second peaks should be a result of the hydrogens furthest away from the rings and the
After allowing the flask to cool to room temperature and cooling on ice, the product was collected and washed with 2-propanol (2ml) into a clean Hirsch funnel and was filtered using vacuum filtration. The triphenylphosphine oxide remained in the propanol solution, and the crystals were dried by drawing air through them. The mass, percentage yield and melting point of the product was obtained. The crystals were stored in a glass vial for next experiment.
Antipsychotic medications have an important role in managing mental illnesses. They are primarily used to treat psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (Australian Medication Handbook (AMH), 2016), and work by blocking dopaminergic transmission, in various parts of the brain, relieving hallucinations, delusions, abnormal behaviour and thought (AMH, 2016; National Prescribing Scheme (NPS) MedicineWise, 2016). LAIAs, also known as depot injections, can be used for chronic psychosis, and are generally used after a consumer is stable through oral
Pimavanserin (marketed as Nuplazid) is a drug developed and approved for the treatment of PDP by the FDA in April 2016. Its mechanism of action and therapeutic relevance is quite significant. As previously mentioned it is a non-dopaminergic second generation antipsychotic. It primarily exhibits selective inverse agonistic behaviours due to its high affinity on the 5-HT2A receptors (Ki 0.087nM) albeit low affinity on the 5-HT2C receptors (Ki 0.44nM) (Meltzer et al., 2012). Although it displays anti-hallucinogenic properties that assist in the overall alleviation of PDP, its mechanism of action is not completely understood to
If all these preventive strategies failed, prompt interventions to correct the condition and treat delirium should be initiated. In such cases, pharmacological treatments are often necessary. Haloperidol,a typical antipsychotic, is the most commonly used empiric agent in this regard, but the staff need to be very vigilant upon potential, significant side-effects of this medication, including extrapyramidal symptoms, torsades de points, prolongation of the Q-T interval, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome(12). Although the exact mechanism of action of this medication in treating delirium is unknown, it is thought that haloperidol acts through antagonizing brain dopamine-2 receptor and reducing dopaminergic activity at the cerebral synapses and basal ganglia(97, 109, 110). Initially, 2mg of the medication is administered intravenously. It could be repeated every 15-20 min, doubling the dose each time until agitation is resolved. After stabilizing the patient, the leasteffective dose should be used every 4-6h as the maintenance (11). Olanzapine (2.5-5 mg orally per day) and other atypical antipsychotics such asziprasidone (40 mg orally every 6-12h) and quetiapine (50 mg orally every 12h)have also been used in treating ICU delirium(11, 111-113). However, there is still controversy in this regard, because these drugs may increase death risk(111,
The use of modified or sustained release formulations offer several advantages including improved patient compliance due to less frequent dosing and avoidance of toxic exposure onto the body by maintaining constant drug level in the blood. A traditional approach in sustained release prodrugs design is to synthesize long-chain aliphatic or polyethylene glycolated esters. The slow hydrolysis of these prodrugs renders them suitable for intramuscular injection (Filpula and Zhao, 2008). Sustained release formulations are highly desired for the treatment of psychoses, as the patients need long-term use of medication that often leads to high degree of patient noncompliance. An excellent example is haloperidol, which is an orally delivered antipsychotic
To characterize the synthesized product using its boiling point, results of simple chemical tests and derivatization reactions, along with the determination of the melting points of the hydrazones and comparison of the hydrazones using their RGB values.