Computing Machinery And Intelligence By Alan Turing

One of the hottest topics that modern science has been focusing on for a long time is the field of artificial intelligence, the study of intelligence in machines or, according to Minsky, “the science of making machines do things that would require intelligence if done by men”.(qtd in Copeland 1). Artificial Intelligence has a lot of applications and is used in many areas. “We often don’t notice it but AI is all around us. It is present in computer games, in the cruise control in our cars and the servers that route our email.” (BBC 1). Different goals have been set for the science of Artificial Intelligence, but according to Whitby the most mentioned idea about the goal of AI is provided by the Turing Test. This test is also called the

The purpose of this paper is to present John Searle’s Chinese room argument in which it challenges the notions of the computational paradigm, specifically the ability of intentionality. Then I will outline two of the commentaries following, the first by Bruce Bridgeman, which is in opposition to Searle and uses the super robot to exemplify his point. Then I will discuss John Eccles’ response, which entails a general agreement with Searle with a few objections to definitions and comparisons. My own argument will take a minimalist computational approach delineating understanding and its importance to the concepts of the computational paradigm.

John Searle 1980(in Cooney, 2000), provides a thought experiment, commonly referred to as the Chinese room argument (CRA), to show that computers, programmed to simulate human cognition, are incapable of understanding language. The CRA requires us to consider a scenario where Searle, who is illiterate in Chinese, finds himself locked in a room with a book containing Chinese characters. Additionally, he has another book which has a set of instructions written in English (which he understands), that allows him to match and manipulate the Chinese characters so that he can provide appropriate written responses (in Chinese) to incoming questions, which are also written in Chinese. Moreover, Searle has a pile of blank paper with which he uses to jot down his answers. Subsequently, Searle becomes so proficient in providing responses that the quality of his answers matches that of a native Chinese speaker. Thus, Searle in the CR functions as a computer would, where he is the system while the books are the program and the blank paper acts as storage.

Alan Turing, as a Physicalist, saw the mind as the brain, since the brain is the physical object. Applying such views to machines, Turing’s Imitation Game ‘test’ is supposed to demonstrate his claim that certain machines should count as “thinking things” in the same way that we humans do. His argument being that, if a machine could imitate a human well enough to deceive a person that it was not a machine, then it should be considered “conscious.” He found that since most of what we base our foundation of consciousness on (our judgments and interactions with others), if we cannot see the responder in the game (i.e. the computer), and it responds as well as human, then it should also be considered a “thinking thing.” Turing also expected that one day machines would be able to imitate our minds so well, that we would not be able to tell the difference between a real mind or “thinking thing,” and a

Alan Turing’s test attempts to answer the question of whether or not a machine can behave like a human. In this test, a machine and a human are placed in an enclosure, separate from the interrogator. The objective of the machine is to trick the interrogator into thinking it's a person by means of typewritten communication. By limiting communication to text only, Turing filters out any

“Thinking” has become so casual in our everyday lives that we sometimes take it for granted and never really think about the process of “thinking”. What does it mean to “think”? What qualities do one need to meet to be considered “capable of thinking”? Being a human involves thinking and thinking involves experiences and emotions. In his paper, Turing questions these traits and brings in new theories to support his statement that machines are capable of thinking, using his imitation game as an example. I would have to disagree with these views and further disagree with the idea that the imitation game can be used to prove a machine’s intelligence.

John Searle formulated the Chinese Room Argument in the early 80’s as an attempt to prove that computers are not cognitive operating systems. In short though the immergence of artificial and computational systems has rapidly increased the infinite possibility of knowledge, Searle uses the Chinese room argument to shown that computers are not cognitively independent.

The section of this chapter that speaks about the Chinese Room argument, interestingly enough this situation reflects many software operated programs that have similar administrations. Basing the programmed input on someone who doesn’t actually understand messages, but could transcribe them based on a ‘script’ as all computer programs follow, he can only translate what the input of his program was dedicated to process. The author indicates the failure of the Turing Test is the result of processing intelligence illogically coupling the ability to calculate an answer to a moral obligation to answer questions conscientiously. “Behavior is an expression of mental states, but it is not identical with them, and it does not ensure their presence.” Creation of AI that share intelligent ideas and have real consciousness is much different than replacing workers on a factory line with arms capable of welding and drilling with perfect accuracy.

In the arena of artificial intelligence research there is a large debate about the possibility of developing a program, which if installed correctly into a computer, would actually produce a mind. There are many arguments one could put forth to support either side of this debate. However, one of the most influential arguments against the possibility of artificial intelligence is The Chinese Room Argument, developed by John Searle. Searle makes some very strong claims about artificial intelligence which seemingly disprove the possibility of developing such a program. While Searle’s argument is quite convincing, there are some fundamental flaws within it which render it inadequate.

Searle’s, The Chinese Room Argument, asks, if a computer can use data to output answers does that computer understand? In Searle’s experiment, he acts as a computer and is given translations of Chinese symbols. He states that even though he can find the appropriate translations for the symbols and output answers he still does not understand Chinese. Prior to my previous argument, I look to investigate in what instance can the computer be thought of as an understanding machine. In order to do this, I must investigate the following: what are the components necessary for understanding, why humans are thought of as understanding beings, and can we duplicate such things in a machine. The Chinese Room experiment is extremely basic, but given more inputs, can the computer think beyond its coded formulas. Searle concludes that Strong AI is not independent intelligence, that it is just simulation of intelligence, and although machines can act highly intelligent what separates them from humans is the notion of intentionality. Humans who are seen as having the ability to form representations, do so through experience. But what is it about the formation of experience that cannot be duplicated and why is it necessary to have such systems in place to be deemed an intelligent, understanding, and a thinking being.

Alan Turing was born in June 23, 1912, Maida Vale. He later died in Wilmslow, United Kingdom, in June 7, 1954. On 8 June 1954, Turing's housekeeper found him dead. He had died the previous day. His full name is Alan Mathison Turing. A post-mortem examination established that the cause of death was cyanide poisoning. An inquest determined that he had committed suicide, and he was cremated at Woking Crematorium on 12 June 1954. In 1941, Turing proposed marriage to Hut 8 colleague Joan Clarke, a mathematician and cryptanalyst, but their engagement was short-lived. After admitting his homosexuality to his fiancée, who was reportedly "unfazed" by the revelation, Turing decided that he could not go through with the marriage. Turing did not have any children in his whole life. His education was held in Princeton University, 1936-1938. Alan’s parents are Ethel Sara Stoney and Julius Mathison Turing. His sibling was called John Turing. One of Alan Turing’s quotes was, “we can only see a short distance ahead, but we can see plenty there that needs to be done.” He was an OBE FRS was an English computer scientist,

Defining intelligence is extremely difficult and researchers now think that there are lots of different aspects to it, including; social, logical, creative, emotional and practical intelligence. The correct representation of the word is arguably a matter of opinion as there are many different definitions. With this argument in mind, it makes the task of arguing a Computers level of intelligence (if any) harder as, ultimately, each person’s definition could be different. A part of being intelligent is the ability for something/someone to be able to think for themselves which most computers aren’t able to do as they are simply programmed to perform certain functions which means that they are not in control of their response. However modern technologies have the propensity to make decisions based on an input from an end user. For example Apples ‘Siri’ service turns voice commands in visual and audio responses.

Alan Turing, “father” of modern computers, created the Turing Machine in order to prove, through the use of an imitation game, that computers can think. John Searle argued that the Turing Test is simply just imitating, rather than thinking. Based on Searle’s argument against the Turing Test, I think that computers cannot have minds. Although Turing argues that computers can think, there are many arguments, such as Searle’s Chinese room argument, and defenses that I will present that support Searle and his belief that computers do not understand the information they simulate and cannot think.

The question of what it means to be human, and what might separate human intelligence from artificial intelligence, has never been more important, because humanity is rapidly approaching the point where technological development will allow the creation of genuinely creative thinking machines. Philosophers, scientists, and even fiction authors have grappled with the ethical implications of this possibility, but many of the ethical quandaries faced by these thinkers are predicated upon a misguided conception of what it means to be human in the first place. By examining the role of metaphors in cognition, what it means to be human, the non-existence of the so-called "mind-body" problem, and the somewhat surprising lack of a distinction between human and artificial intelligence, it will be possible to demonstrate that the ethical issues concerning the creation of thinking machines are no different than those concerning the conception of a human child, and furthermore, that there might even be a kind of ethical imperative for humans to create and nurture artificial intelligence in the future.

“Can a machine think?” Is a long lived question humans have had? If a machine can think then it must have the same intelligence as a human, then right? If a machine has human intelligence, then does that mean it has a mind of its own? It is desired by many humans to know if one day the answers to all these questions could be yes. In hopes of figuring this out, a testing method was created called the Turing Test. This test was created by an English mathematician named Alan Turing in the 1940s and 1950s. Alan Turing was interested in the idea of artificial intelligence, or the theory of computers being able perform tasks like humans. In result of introducing this theory, Turing developed a testing method called the Turing Test. This would answer the question “Can computers think?” The Turing Test consist of three subjects. Two of these subjects are humans and the other is a computer system. One human is the questioner who is required to ask the other two subjects a series of questions. By the responses of the other two subjects, the questioner has to determine which subject is the computer, and which one is the human. In order to receive accurate results, the test is repeated many times. If the computer system is believed to be the human subject by the questioner, then the computer system is confirmed to have artificial intelligence. However, questioning must be in a specific style for accurate test results. Computer systems have an advantage over humans in certain