Encoding Specificity is very important in understanding how memory is retrieved and stored. Memory

How is memory encoded and what methods can lead to greater recall? There have been many different models suggested for human memory and many different attempts at defining a specific method of encoding that will lead to greater recall. In this experiment subjects are asked to do a semantic task on a word related to them and an orthographic task in which they analyze the letter in the word. The results of the experiment indicate that the words which where encoded semantically and are related to the self have greater recall.

* Tip- of-the-tongue phenomenon- when you know certain information but have difficulty being able to recall it.

In another study, researchers wanted to find the effect alcohol has on the encoding of false memories. This study is interesting to note as many crimes happen under the influence of substances. Garfinkel, Dienes and Duke (2006) study had 32 participants who were given either alcohol or a placebo beverage, then underwent an encoding phase consisting of 10 lists of nine associated words. Each list was associated to a word, which was not presented at encoding. This served as the measure for false memory. Half of the lists were presented once, and then the other half was repeated three times. The next day, participants experienced implied measurements and a clear free recall task. The results showed alcohol decreased false explicit memory for the list that were presented once, compared to the placebo where no difference was found for the repeated lists (Garfinkel, Dienes & Duke, 2006). Awareness memory measured in placebo subjects increased the ability with repetition in rejecting false

Question 11.11. (TCOs 7, 8) “The effectiveness of memory retrieval is directly related to the similarity of cues present when the memory was encoded to the cues present when the memory is retrieved.” What concept does this statement describe? (Points : 5)

Addiction to drugs and alcohol has changed the lives of millions of Americans. According to Alcoholics Anonymous: Addiction will play tricks on the mind, forcing it to get stuck in an emotional and intellectual limbo. This limbo paralyzes rational associations by replacing a traditional outlook on life to one of an addict. The definition of insanity is to do the same thing over and over again, expecting different results. In order to grow emotionally its important to analyze our own actions and behaviors according to the Alcoholics Anonymous book. The Twelve Traditions of Alcoholics Anonymous; the stories of experience, strength and hope come together to form a compilation of success stories(Alcoholics Anonymous, 2001, p. 562-566). This books treatment for the disease of addiction is a series of reconditioning interpretations and a understanding of behaviors. The treatment for psychological issues that have been coped with by means of addiction is enough for a free life time membership to A.A. The A.A. way of life is relatively simple but many still relapse again and again. Those that work the program recondition their mind and eventually find serenity. Often, more times than

Research has shown that there is “greater activation in the left inferior frontal and medial temporal lobes” (Stanford, 2006, p. 208) during the encoding of words which were later remembered as compared to those which were forgotten. The sensations perceived by sensory nerves are decoded in the hippocampus of the brain into a single experience (Mastin, 2010). The hippocampus analyses new information and compares and asssociates it with previously stored memory (Mastin, 2010). Human memory is associative in that new information can be remembered better if it can be associated to previously acquired, firmly consolidated information (Mastin, 2010). The various pieces of information are then stored in different parts of the brain (Mastin, 2010). Though the exact method by which this information is later identified and recalled has yet to be discovered, it is understood that ultra-short term sensory memory is converted into short term memory which can then later be consolidated into long term memory (Mastin, 2010).

schemas. At the retrieval stage, recall was influenced by the schemas participants had of what

Some factors include social, religious, psychological, genetic characteristics and childhood (B. Sadock, V. Sadock, & Ruiz, 2015). Based on psychological theories, low and high doses of alcohol can have an effect on an individual’s psychological feelings of nervousness which can cause an increase or decrease in tension (B. Sadock, V. Sadock, & Ruiz, 2015). Furthermore, psychodynamic theories demonstrate that most individuals utilize this drug to help them deal with harsh superegos and to decrease unconscious stress levels (B. Sadock, V. Sadock, & Ruiz, 2015). Lastly, behavioral theories demonstrate that the rewarding effects of drinking, attitudes about one’s behavior, and reinforcement after alcohol intake contribute to the decision to continue drink despite problems ((B. Sadock, V. Sadock, & Ruiz, 2015). Based on these ethological theories, individuals with AUD can be exposed to various influences which contribute to the onset of their drinking

Stimulus Discrimination • The tendency of a CR to be weaker or not occur to the CSs that are dissimilar to the original CS or that have undergone extinction. Classical conditioning • Establishing a learned association between two stimuli. (Pavlov and dogs) Operant Conditioning • The imposition of a contingencies, either deliberate or natural. (reinforcer and punisher) Little Albert Experiment • Watson and Rayner 1920 • When presented with a white rat, a disturbing noise. Became afraid of other white colored things (white dogs, fur coats, santa claus) Negative reinforcement • Something unpleasant is moved away or doesn’t happen when the desired behavior is performed. Chapter 5: Acoustic encoding • The process of remembering and comprehending something that you hear. Repetition of words or putting information into a song or rhythm uses acoustic encoding. Semantic encoding • A specific type of encoding in which the meaning of something (a word, phrase, picture, event, whatever) is encoded as opposed to the sound or vision of it. Research suggests that we have better memory for things we associate meaning to and store using semantic encoding. Iconic encoding • Very brief sensory memory of some visual stimuli, that occur in the form of mental pictures. Stored for shorter periods of time than echoic memories. Memory retrieval • The process of extracting knowledge fro long term memory. Curve of forgetting • The

The memory is encoding things and recording things. The memory is made up of short term memory, long term memory and working memory. The best way to keep things in mind for more than a few seconds is to encode it with deep processing. This means that the mind is encoding the memory by making what is to be remembered more meaningful and on a deeper level than surface level meaning. Joshua also mentions that this is an effective way to memorize things and that is how the memory contest participants can memorize large amounts of information in short periods of time. (Lecture, Memory, September/October)

These expectations and actions reside in partygoers’ cognitive mechanisms. As Barsalou (2009) discusses, the brain stores new information as it becomes relevant to peoples’ lives. Partiers selectively focus on positive experiences they had from drinking alcohol and store them in their long-term memory constructs. These implicit mechanisms utilize stimulators, a cognitive representation of an experience, to activate perceptual memory. Perceptual memory processes situations and makes predictions that

Alcohol Outcome Expectancy (AOE), the beliefs of an individual on the outcome of alcohol use, is influential in drinking behavior. (Ham et al., 2011) AOE may be divided into two perspectives, positive and negative outcome expectancies. A positive alcohol outcome expectancy forecasts that alcohol consumption will protect an individual from judgement due to alcohols effects while a negative alcohol outcome

The first process of memory is attention. There is much more information around you than you can process at any one time. Thus, you must make choices (conscious and unconscious) regarding the information you will remember. Once information is acknowledged, it needs to be encoded in order to be remembered. Encoding refers to translating incoming information into a trigger

Prior to the early 1970s the prominent idea of how memories were formed and retrieved revolved around the idea of processing memory into specific stores (Francis & Neath, 2014). These memory stores were identified as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. In contrast to this idea, two researchers named Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart proposed an idea linking the type of encoding to retrieval (Goldstein, 2015). This idea is known as the levels of processing theory. According to this theory, memory depends on the depth of processing that a given item is received by an individual (Goldstein, 2015). Craik and Lockhart stressed four points in supporting their theory. First, they argued that memory was the result of a series of analyses, each level of the series forming a deeper level of processing than the preceding level (Francis & Neath, 2014). The shallow levels of processing were believed to hold less importance and are defined as giving little attention to meaning of an item. Examples of which include focusing on how a word sounds or memorizing a phone number by repeating it over and over again (Francis & Neath, 2014) (Goldstein, 2015). The deeper levels processing involve paying close attention to the meaning of an item and relating that meaning to something else, an example of which would be focusing on the meaning of a word rather than just how the word sounds (Francis & Neath, 2014) (Goldstein, 2015). The second point Craik and Lockhart

Throughout history, society has engaged in taking substances such as alcohol, that alter our physical being or our psychological state of mind. There are many experiences and pressures that force people to feel like they have to drink in order to cope with life, but for many alcohol is a part of everyday life, just like any other beverage. Alcohol is introduced to us in many ways, through our family, television, movies, and friends’. These “sociocultural variants are at least as important as physiological and psychological variants when we are trying to understand the interrelations of alcohol and human behavior”#. How we perceive drinking and continue drinking can be determined by the drinking habits we see, either by who we drink with,