Modal Memory

In the last half century several theories have emerged with regard to the best model for human memory. In each of these models there was a specific way to help people recall words and

This essay will be discussing one particular cognitive process: the memory by evaluating two models, which are the Multi store model introduced by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968 and the Working memory model by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974.

Early studies have widely researched attention with selective processing (Driver, 2001). Broadbent (1958) filter theory of attention states that certain information does not require focal attention. It is based on certain stimulus attributes such as colour and shape (Friedenberg, 2012). A previous study carried out by Treisman and Schmidt (1982) proposes that when attention is diverted from a display of several figures, the participants incorrectly combine the features of colour and shape therefore increases the illusory conjunctions portrayed by the participants (Tsal, 1989). Another study by Shaw (1978) found that reaction time of participant to identify targets varied with the probability that a target would appear in a particular display location. These results indicate that different amounts of attention towards the targets are distributed to different positions in the visual field. However, Houck and Hoffman (1986) found that the feature integration of colour and orientation can sometimes be accomplished without attention (James et al.,

Treisman's feature integration theory is a two-stage model of visual object perception: The first stage is called "pre-attentive" because it happens automatically, or without effort or attention by the perceiver. In this stage, an object is broken down into its elementary features for processing (i.e., color, texture, shape, etc.). Treisman posits we are unaware of this stage of attention because it occurs quickly and early in perceptual processes (before conscious awareness). Evidence for the pre-attentive state comes from Treisman's own studies. Treisman created a display of four objects flanked by two black numbers. The display flashed on a computer screen for 1/5 of a second and followed by a random-dot masking field to eliminate residual

This essay addresses the working memory model which was proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974 in Smith & Kosslyn, 2007) as a response to Atkinson and Shiffrins (1968 in Smith, 2007) multi-store model. According to Baddely and Hitch the multi-store model failed to explain most of the complexities of the human memory and viewed it as being too simplistic. They argued that the short term memory store must have more components rather it being a single inflexible store as suggested previously by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). The working memory model is therefore an enhancement of the multi store model. According to Baddeley and Hitch working memory is a limited- capacity system that stores and processes information.

Deterioration of memory is another symptom that is frequently reported in patients with Huntington’s disease. “Individuals with the disease will have difficulty learning new information and retrieving previously learned information”(Paulsen, 2011). Paulsen stated that implicit memory may be affected more than anything. He states that implicit memory is, “collections of coordinated movements and skills that allow an individual to ride a bike, play a musical instrument, and perform tasks such as driving a car.” Righi, Galli, and Paganini also stated that due to the deficit in memory, these individuals present with time perception impairments. They found this information by performing a test that included time perception performance and temporal

They proposed that WM comprises a central executive and attentional controller (top-down voluntary attention) that supervises and coordinates a number of subsystems, including 1) The phonological loop, which deals with speech-based information, and 2) The visuo-spatial sketchpad, which deals with visually based information [60]. The central executive has a flexible structure and it is responsible for the regulation and control of cognitive processes with the following functions: binding information from a number of sources into coherent episodes, coordination of the slave systems, shifting between tasks (or retrieval strategies), selection (the role of selective attention), and inhibition. Some studies prefrontal cortex, large regions of the cortex (especially the parietal, frontal, and anterior cingulate), and parts of the basal ganglia are considered as WM [61], [62]. Baddeley [63], [64] equates the central executive with the SAS described by Norman and Shallice [29] and Shallice [30]. Baddeley in 2000 [65] introduced the possibility of a new, fourth, component of WM called the episodic buffer (See Figure 3). The episodic buffer allows information represented in different codes to be temporarily bound together [60]. It is controlled by the central executive, which can retrieve information from the episodic buffer into conscious

This theory explains the process of finding features in an attention search and the difficulty of conjunction searches. The human mind has mental maps that show the features in our visual field (Psych 240 Lecture, 9/18/16). In the research article discussed, in order to be able to distinguish the targets from the distractors, it was important for the participants to utilize this theory. Features of the letters and digits help the participant capture what letter or digit is required while avoiding the

The concept of the Dual-Store Model of Memory was proposed by psychologists Richkard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin with three components: Sensory Register, Working (Short-Term) Memory, and Long-Term Memory (Ormrod, 2016, p. 164). These components combined make up the entirety of the memory, but each have unique and vital roles that they play in the memory. The sensory register is a massive bank of storage that holds memories of senses - sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and how something feels (touch), but it does not store memories for any considerable length of time. The senses that are held here are processed and then they move on to the next component (Ormrod, 2016, pp. 165-167). An example of the sensory register could be the birds I just saw flying past my window. These birds flew through the air one moment, and then they were gone the next

Literature review 450 Words Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin were the first two to reveal how the human memory works in 1982, and they design the multi store model. According to them both information is stream through the memory system then separated into a set of stages for the information to be stored. The three stages of process for the memory are sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Each stage of the process, there are limitations in the terms of capacity, duration and encoding.

The eye perceives geometric figures as shapes in different forms. Just looking at the contour design of the geometric figure makes the eye focus on the figure (Rock, 2014). Sensory psychologists have identified brain cells that catch contours of a figure in the eye, so some people believe that form perception is just spotting a figure’s contours (Rock, 2014). Some object features are its colors, edges, and motions. However, the object features are “processed in entirely different regions of the brain” (Rock, 2014).

The Feature Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade, 1980) links pre-attention and attention together and tries to explain why pop-out effects occur and how conjunction searches work. It states that features of an object (for example, colour and texture) are pre-attentionally coded in parallel, which explains why the pop-out effect exists. The object’s features are then combined through attention to form the whole object, which is why conjunction searches take longer to complete as you have to look for a number of features that combine together to make what you are looking for. Support for the Feature Integration Theory comes from Bravo & Nakayama (1992) who found that as the number of distractor items increased in a visual search task, reaction

It is all about how people view the world, determined what is seen to be real, identifying objects and colors at a fast rate which is the main feature of perceptual binding, Gestalt theory, and feature integration. Gestalt theory focuses overall of an object whereas feature integration looks at parts of an object. This process enables the objects to be seen in a full visual context. Perceptual binding but it is spatial and temporal providing binding for both perceptual and cognition. According to Whitman (2011) perceptual binding formulae the object through cognitive mental process whereas, feature integration suggests that a person consolidates individual topographies of an item to generate a more whole perception of it. In terms of perceptual

Prior to the early 1970s the prominent idea of how memories were formed and retrieved revolved around the idea of processing memory into specific stores (Francis & Neath, 2014). These memory stores were identified as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. In contrast to this idea, two researchers named Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart proposed an idea linking the type of encoding to retrieval (Goldstein, 2015). This idea is known as the levels of processing theory. According to this theory, memory depends on the depth of processing that a given item is received by an individual (Goldstein, 2015). Craik and Lockhart stressed four points in supporting their theory. First, they argued that memory was the result of a series of analyses, each level of the series forming a deeper level of processing than the preceding level (Francis & Neath, 2014). The shallow levels of processing were believed to hold less importance and are defined as giving little attention to meaning of an item. Examples of which include focusing on how a word sounds or memorizing a phone number by repeating it over and over again (Francis & Neath, 2014) (Goldstein, 2015). The deeper levels processing involve paying close attention to the meaning of an item and relating that meaning to something else, an example of which would be focusing on the meaning of a word rather than just how the word sounds (Francis & Neath, 2014) (Goldstein, 2015). The second point Craik and Lockhart

When someone looks at a picture, feedforward circuit conveys information to trigger lower visual region, which is V1, and then travels to higher visual regions through the dorsal and ventral streams. The brain areas are activated not at the same time, but instead it spreads out from V1. The velocity of ventral and dorsal streams is different; the dorsal stream is much faster. Feedforward is involved in pre-attentive and preconscious vision, whereas recurrent connection is involved in attentive and conscious vision. Since the attention binds all features of a specific object, it needs longer latencies for this process by using recurrent connections (Lamme & Roelfsema, 2000). Furthermore, there are two ways to utilize sensory information, reactive mode (feedback) and predictive mode (feedforward). In reactive mode, we do not know about the sensory input until we get it. Thus, our system reacts and uses the information as feedback. As we become better, less feedback is used, and the brain works in a predictive way. For example, in novel movements one uses the reactive way, because a lot of feedback is used, so the movement is slow and is divided into many steps. Once one figures out the movement’s requirements, feedforward allows ones to move predictably. For example, if we want to catch a ball, there are visual inputs traveling into the cortex through the two visual streams; the ventral stream, which allows us to perceive what we are looking at the time that the dorsal stream