Musculoskeletal System

system is to provide movement for the body. The muscular system consist of three different

Everything in the body is connected in some way. Each part functions for a specific reason, whether it is to produce movement, organize, communicate, etc. While there are some parts of the body we can live without, most parts are there for a reason. Without those necessary parts, disease, disabilities, or even death can occur. The musculoskeletal system is a great example of how the body works together to function properly. The system is responsible for providing support, stability, form, and movement to the body. It consists of the bones of the skeleton, cartilage, ligaments, joints, tendons, and muscles. Each part of the musculoskeletal system is intertwined and work together to form a fully functioning system. To show this is true, I will

The continuous high levels of PTH stimulate bone resorption by osteoclasts, but do so indirectly. The PTH will bind to the receptors located on the osteoblast, which then signal bone marrow-derived osteoclast precursors to differentiate into osteoclasts. This is done through the activity of RANKL binding to RANK. When stimulated by PTH, the osteoblasts up-regulate expression of RANKL which binds to RANK and activates osteoclast production. This process will result in high bone turnover and ultimately, bone resorption. Overall, there will be more activity in the resorption phase of the bone remodeling cycle.

1997). The glands are composed of chief and oxyphil cells; both cells types contain PTH has a half-life from 4-10 minutes due to rapid degradation in the liver (Aron et al. 1997). Parathyroid hormone provides a powerful mechanism for controlling extracellular Ca and phosphate concentrations by regulating intestinal re-absorption, renal excretion, and exchange between the extracellular fluid and bone of these ions (Aron et al. 1997). Parathyroid hormone response to a decrease in blood Ca levels (Bhattacharya 2014). Serum Ca levels normally average 9.5mg/dL (Kierszenbaum 2007). When Ca intake or absorption is inadequate, PTH is secreted to avoid hypocalcemia by increasing the conversion of 25(OH)vitamin D into 1,25(OH)2vitamin D and intestinal absorption, increasing the renal tubular Ca reabsorption but also increasing bone resorption (Bagchi, Nair ,and Sen 2013). Parathyroid hormone has biphasic effects on bone formation by causing an acute inhibition of collagen synthesis with high concentrations, but, on the contrary, it increases bone formation with prolonged intermittent administration (Rissanen 2013). If the stimulus persists, secondary hyperparathyroidism will cause negative bone balance (Holick

Hexapede are approximately “2 meters long” (6.56 foot) and “2.4 meters tall” (7.87) (Pandorapedia , 2016). They are vertebrates with endoskeleton structure. Starting from its head, the skull is small and sloped with symmetrical fan lobed-like structure on the skull. The neck consists of cervical vertebrae. Along its back lies scapula thoracic, vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacro and pelvis. Its tail: caudal vertebrae. Attached to its back is the rib cage. Hexapede has six limbs therefore, the front and middle limb consist of (4) humerus bone, (4) Ulna, (4) radii, (4) carpi, (4) metacarpi and 4 phalanges. Its back limbs consist of (2) femurs, (2) rotula, (2) tibias, (2) fibula, (2) tarsi, (2) metatarsi and (2) phalanges.

Firstly, the musculoskeletal system includes your muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones and cartilage. The nervous system is also at times used to control the musculoskeletal system; this would allow voluntary movement to take place. The impulses around the body help contract muscles; as a muscle contracts it would shorten and pull the attached bone to it. As well as this, the skeletal system maintains a structure and posture for the body and allows movement to take place, and so it produces heat by contracting muscles. Some of the acute changes that take place in the musculoskeletal system are:

Understanding Musculoskeletal Injuries: Are You at Risk? The bones give the body support and stability, but without the muscles, movement would be impossible. Together, the musculoskeletal system is responsible for the body’s form and strength, and with both being directly involved in body movement, it also means that the musculoskeletal system is prone to injuries. Aside from the bones and muscle, the musculoskeletal system also includes the joint, tendons, cartilage, ligaments, and connective tissues that bind them all together along with other organs. These are the structures that make us flexible, which, as a group, help us to run, walk, sit, kneel, and perform other more coordinated movements.

Along with IGF-I, PTH induces Receptor Activator of Nuclear factor κB Ligand (RANKL) and Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (MCSF) from mature osteoblasts to promote osteoclastogenesis (150). PTH elevates cAMP levels and inhibits Mef2-stimulated Sost promoter activity in osteocytes, leading to decreased expression of sclerostin and an elevated bone formation rate (151). Vitamin D3 stimulates osteoblastogenesis via differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells to osteoblasts (152). Calcitonin suppresses bone resorption by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts (153). Estrogen inhibits bone resorption by directly inducing apoptosis of the bone-resorbing osteoclasts (154). Androgens can also indirectly inhibit osteoclast activity and bone resorption via effects on osteoblasts/osteocytes and the RANKL/RANK/OPG (OPG: Osteoprotegerin) system (155, 156). In addition to systemic hormonal regulation, it is known that growth factors such as Insuline Growth Factors (IGFs), TGF-β, FGFs, Epidermal growth factor (EGF), WNTs, and BMPs play significant roles in regulation of physiological bone remodeling

To start off, the muscular system is what allows the body to move. Muscles are attached to the bones of the skeletal system and are made up of skeletal muscle tissue, blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. There are roughly 700 of them and each one is a discrete organ, together they make up approximately half of a person’s body weight (“Muscular System”).

When blood calcium levels drop, the parathyroid gland, which has receptors that sense that drop, produces PTH in the chief cells and releases it into the blood. PTH then travels to bone and the kidneys. In bone, PTH binds to receptors on osteoclasts and causes them to release

A very narrow range of 9-11 mg per dl of calcium in blood is maintained by a negative feedback hormonal loop (Formation 2013). The thyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to low calcium in the blood detected by the g-protein coupled receptor. PTH activates bone digesting Osteoclasts, which move along a bone surface, breaking down the matrix and in turn release Ca2+ and HPO42-. Calcium salts are converted into soluble forms by the hydrochloric acid secreted by the ruffle border of the Osteoclast. Bones can become so de mineralised that they develop large holes when blood calcium levels are too low for an extended period of time (Marieb & Hoehn 2010). Extracellular calcium levels between 9-11ng or higher results in the binding of calcium to the receptor inhibiting the secretion of PTH. Without the bodies capacity to detect changes in ECF calcium concentration, voltage gated ion channels can become unstable and result in hyperactivity of muscle and nerve cells (Humoral Regualtion 2013). According to the Harvard health publication: Calcium beyond the bones, fundamental processes such as growth may be underdeveloped or calcium may be deposited in soft tissues such as the heart and lungs when there is excess or inadequate levels of calcium (Calcium 2010). Most calcium deposits are benign however

This essay will talk about how different features of the musculoskeletal system functioning in terms of movement, support and load bearing, the factors which affect tensions in developed muscle and different roles of muscle and their roles in movement. The first part to start with is to understand what musculoskeletal system is and the function of it. The basic function of musculoskeletal system is to support the human body, allow movement, support and protect organs, it also known as the loco-motor system. The system is formed by bones, cartilage, ligaments, muscles, tendons, joints and other connective tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together. The skeletal part of the system works as storage system for calcium and phosphorus. It is essential for bones to regulate mineral balance in the bloodstream, and then the variation of minerals is high, these minerals are stored in bone; when it is low, minerals are withdrawn from the bone. The skeleton system has a critical relationship with blood production (hematopoietic) system. The hematopoietic system locates in long bones and there are two distinctions of bone marrow. The yellow marrow has fatty connective tissue, the body uses the fat in yellow marrow for energy; the red marrow is important for blood cell production. The bones also provide stability to the body; muscles keep bones in place and also play a role in movement of the bones. When movement happens, different bones are connected by joints and

Hyperparathyroidism is the overproduction of parathyroid hormone which leads to elevated levels of both PTH and calcium in the

It is know that the musculoskeletal physiology is different for men and women, with women generally having less muscle mass and bone mass. It is also know that when astronauts come back to Earth after a mission they experience change in the neuromuscular and musculoskeletal system due to the unloading of microgravity. One article I found talks about the effect of gender and sex on adaption to space. It is noted that beyond 2 weeks of unloading, women experience greater loss in whole muscle volume and fiber area, mainly type II fiber. At the same time, type I fiber loss is shown with preferential atrophy in both men and women (Ploutz-Snyder et al., 2014). Decreased muscle mass or atrophy results from protein degradation induced by unloading.

Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological systems, by means of the methods of mechanics. Biomechanics is a broad spectrum, dealing with humans, animals, plants, molecular analysis, and whole body analysis.