Proportionate Reasoning

In the famous Belmont Report, several guidelines regarding informed consent, assessment of risk and benefits, and selection of subjects in addition to ethical practice and procedure in the area of human research are outlined. The Belmont Report attempts to summarize the basic ethical principles identified by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (Belmont Report, 1979). In particular I would like to discuss the standards for informed consent, assessment of risk and benefits, and selection of test subjects drawn out by the Belmont Report. These three areas of interest are said to be the applications of the general

As we discover treatments for diseases such as rabies, feline leukemia, tetanus, anthrax, and much more, animals also bear the advantage of protection. In fact, humans share hundreds of diseases with animals. We also share similar organs allowing scientists to use animals as an essential model for the study of illnesses. Therefore, the work researchers perform sets a platform for an end result where both parties benefit. It can thus be concluded that those against animal research are covered by a counterintuitive notion because, without animal research, the animals whom they are fighting for would die due to a potentially curable disease. To deal with the ethical dilemma of animal research, countries like the United Kingdom have placed regulations that require the research scientists to show how and if they have considered alternative ways before they are given a license to continue with their research projects. Given these circumstances, we can conclude that the rise in animals used in research must mean that in the near future there may be major medical

Potential grave consequences that can result from irresponsible, or criminal, medical experiments. While we must be vigilant to protect innocent victims from such experimentation we cannot let that stifle our duty to continue making advances in healthcare and improving the lives of patients.

In healthcare, it is important to establish an informed consent. Informed consent is a process by which a client or client legal representative and the healthcare provider engage in a discussion about a course of medical treatment. It includes the risk of treatment, benefit, possible harm and consequences as well as alternatives provided by the healthcare practitioner or physicians in an understandable manner (Blais, K. & Hayes, J. S., 2016, p.85). Informed consent takes into consideration the safety of the patient. It allows the patients to ask questions about the procedures and discuss any concerns; by doing so can help improve patient outcomes and prevent medical errors.

Historically, in medical research, researchers have taken patients cells or organs and used them for research without their consent. Occasionally there are connections with a lack of consent and the economic, social and educational ranking of the patient being used for medical research. There have been trends that show the medical community has taken advantage of the less educated, they may not understand what is happening and/or all the risks involved. Consent should be required at the same level for all patients regardless of their status in society or level of education.

When research involving human participants is carried out within an institution such as a hospital, formal ethical approval is normally required (Sim and Wright 2000). All participants gave informed consent. Informed

In the 1930’s voluntary informed consent was a key ethical requirement in biomedical research involving human beings because medical experts

Informed consent means that the psychologist or researcher must make every effort to be sure the patient understands the purpose, benefits, risks, and other options of the test or treatment. Then the doctor or nurse must get the patient’s consent before starting (American Cancer Society,2014). The reason why this is required for every experiment, is because the participants has to understand the risks of the experiment so they are willing to agree on, or in other words, give consent to participate the experiment.

Informed consent explains in detail to all patients the potential risks involved, when moving forward with the procedure. This form of content has become the standard in daily practice at every medical institution. (Post, 2007) The federal government is pursuing a set of studies, that will permit researchers to conduct medical experiments without obtaining the patients consent. (Post, 2007)

When doing a controlled study you have to make sure you are not withholding treatment from anybody. In addition, it is the responsibility of the researcher to ensure the protection of human subjects and/or participants in research (Laureate Education, 2010). Prior to the research study, the all the participants were provided and completed written informed consent. In addition, the research article did indicate that the study was granted approval from the local research ethics committee.

Human subjects should be fully informed about experiments in which they may participate and give their consent before they enroll. This includes research procedure and goals, risks and expected benefits. The participants should be informed that they have the right to withdraw at any time but they also need to inform about the risk factors of that withdrawal. They should be informed about if the research results will be made public or it will be kept private.

Obtaining consent from participants for clinical studies is an essential element of research. Consents are made to protect individuals from harm (Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt, 2015). The first critical element that must be clearly stated in any consent is that participation is voluntary. Second, informed consent implies that participants must be “informed”. Therefore, the consent form must include information that is important but does not compromise the research such as: purpose, procedures and tasks. In addition, the consent form must clearly state the duration of the clinical study (Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt, 2015). This element is essential because participants need to plan ahead to take part of the research for a pre-established period of time. The risk and benefits must be clearly written as well. Confidentiality is another critical element that must be present in the consent form. Participants must be aware if their information will be share with 3rd parties, so they can continue or withdraw from the project. Furthermore, the consent must state any compensation or incentives that participants will receive. Participant’s rights should be written with clarity within the consent form. Lastly, participants must have some contact information available in case any question arise (Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt,

The role of trust in successfully communicating informed consent is very important. Informed consent is necessary to make sure that the patient/subject is properly aware of all factors involved in his or her choice to proceed with any medical decision. All risks, side effects, steps or methods, and even intention should be disclosed at this time. If a patient does not receive full disclosure, it can lead to the perception of dishonesty on the doctor’s/researcher’s part. No one wants to feel lied to or misled by someone that was trusted to perform a specific task.

The Belmont Report, published in 1979 by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioral Research is required reading for all researchers. This document provides the ethical underpinnings of most of the U.S. Federal regulations governing human research. The document sets out the difference between the practice of medicine and research, ethical principles including the principles of respect for individuals, beneficence and justice, and more specific the application of these principles to actual research. For example, the document discusses informed consent, the assessment of risks and benefits and the design of research, and the selection of subjects.

For the past 20 years, there has a been an on going heated debate on whether experiments on animals for the benefit of medical and scientific research is ethical. Whether it is or isn't, most people believe that some form of cost-benefit test should be performed to determine if the action is right. The costs include: animal pain, distress and death where the benefits include the collection of new knowledge or the development of new medical therapies for humans. Looking into these different aspects of the experimentation, there is a large gap for argument between the different scientists' views. In the next few paragraphs, both sides of the argument will be expressed by the supporters.