Prostate Cancer Research Paper

PSA levels can be compared against prior PSA test levels for changes. The PSA test is an excellent screening tool because it is highly sensitive, reasonably priced, and well-tolerated by patients. A PSA level alone is doesn’t distinguish what could be benign prostate conditions or cancer. A doctor considers PSA test when deciding whether to check further for signs of prostate cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2009).

PSA test results are interpreted as: 0-4 ng/mL is normal. Between 4 to 10 ng/ML is 25% of developing cancer, and > 10 ng/ml is a > 50% risk of cancer. However, some men with normal PSA levels still have prostate cancer, while other men with high PSA levels do not. PSA levels increase with age often due to a higher prevalence of benign prostate hypertrophy (BPH). Therefore, no PSA cutoff can accurately guarantee that a man does not have prostate cancer.

Prostate Cancer is a disease in which there is an uncontrolled growth of cells that lines the ducts of the prostate gland. The abnormal cells can spread throughout the prostate and nearby organs, such as the seminal vesicles. If not caught early they can spread (metastasized) to other organs of the body through the lymph or blood stream. (“...Treatment...” 13) Prostate Cancer can be like a silent killer. Some may show signs and symptoms of this disease while others may not. Some symptoms may include frequent urination, blood in the urine or semen, delayed or slowed start of urinary stream and dribbling or leakage of urine. Diagnosis testing for Prostate Cancer are digital

Men should talk with a doctor if they are 45 and at high risk for prostate cancer. This includes those with a family history, especially African American men.

The first reason being the level accuracy of PSA testing is questionable. The test determines a positive for the cancer based on the levels of prostate-specific antigens in the blood of the patient, which can be abnormally high for multiple other reasons not related to prostate cancer. The major evidence supporting said claim is that individuals with more than 4.0 ng per mL (the threshold to test positive) can have false positive rates of 70% (Mulhem 2). The second reason would be the implications of testing positive for prostate cancer, including but not limited to unnecessary treatment of the disease. While the analysis does not back up unnecessary treatment with any statistical evidence, it does go to explain further tests and procedures to confirm and understand the nature of the patient’s condition. This bleeds over to the negative physical and psychological side-effects of regular prostate cancer screening cited by the analysis. Mulhem explains that after testing positive for prostate cancer, more tests are performed to determine the accuracy of the screening and if so, reveal the specificities of the cancer. The most common of these tests being the prostate biopsy, a procedure that causes a significant portion of participants to develop moderate to severe problems requiring a follow-up with their doctor (Mulhem

This type of cancer happens in a man's male reproductive gland which is a small walnut-shaped gland that produces the very important fluid that gives food to keep alive and vehicles sperm. Male reproductive gland cancer grows slowly and during the first stages it remains within the male reproductive gland and not be serious or cause any harm. However, while at times male reproductive gland cancer may grow slowly and may only need very little treatment or not treatment at all, there are some type's male reproductive gland cancers that are aggressive and spread quickly. This way identifying a disease or its cause the cancer early while is kept to the male reproductive gland, has a better change of effective treatment. Although there may be no signs and signs of sickness during the early stages of male reproductive gland cancer, when the male reproductive gland cancer is more advance it may cause some signs of sickness including but not limited to; trouble urinating, decreased force in stream of urine, blood in the urine, blood in the semen, swelling of the legs and discomfort in the hip-related area. As of today, it is not certain exactly what causes male reproductive gland cancer among men. It is know that male reproductive gland cancer begins when the cells of the male reproductive gland become different from what's usually expected and change in the DNA of these

Prostatic carcinoma is more common in older men after age 50, however any man is at risk for this type of cancer. American Society of Clinical Oncology says that more than 80% of prostate cancers are diagnosed in men who are 65 or older.

PSA has become the most important biomarker for detection and follow up of prostate cancer. PSA levels of greater than 4.0ng/ml have been considered to have predictive value for prostate cancer. This screening test is well tolerated, quick, cheap, and standardized. Physicians are also familiar with the test results and can easily translate (Roobol et al., 2011). According to Wachtel, Nelius, Haynes, Dahlbeck, and de Riese (2013), the United States Preventative Health Task Force recently recommended PSA screening be abandoned in part by examining the results of two randomized trials, concluding that the results did not support the notion that the benefit of PSA screening outweighed the risks and costs even though there has been a steady decline in mortality since the early 1990s.

PSA levels are found increased in these conditions, as the tissue barrier is disrupted between the prostate gland lumen and the capillaries. PSA screening has limited accuracy, which can lead to over diagnosis of the disease, performance of unnecessary diagnostic testing and treatment. Therefore, many men with false positive PSA screening, who have no cancer, are subjected to invasive procedures such as prostate biopsies, radical prostatectomy and radiation therapy. Biopsies not only cause discomfort to the patient, but have other risks such as infections, hematuria, prostatitis, sepsis, endocarditis, cystitis, hypotension and urinary symptoms. The pros and cons of PSA testing should be informed to patient before performing the test. For these reasons, professional organizations, including the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), American Cancer Society (ACS), and American Urology Association (AUA), have issued clinical practice guidelines recommending that clinicians inform patients about the pros, cons, and uncertainties of PSA screening, and that screening decisions be based on patient preferences (Han

A man’s age is what will put him at higher risk for prostate cancer. Men who are at higher risk are men between ages 40 and 50 years old. It is very rare for a man to be diagnosed with prostate cancer but as it is not common to be diagnosed with prostate cancer it is more likely to be diagnosed with it after the age of 50. Let it be known that more than 220,000 men will be diagnosed this year with prostate cancer, and over 20,000 men will lose their life from it. These statistics have been increasing over the years because there is no answer in what causes prostate cancer.

cause men to urinate more often or have a weaker flow of urine. Also the extension

Researchers and scientists continue to evaluate what factors cause prostate cancer and what can be done to reduce their risks factors. Research plays a valuable role the more knowledge that is gained about the molecular and cellular events underlying prostate cancer and how these events can be interrupted the better we can react to defeating this cancer. While there is no verified way to completely prevent this disease, there are actions that one can take to lower susceptibility. It is important to determine which dietary elements correlate with altered risk of prostate cancer, and how risk may be reduced through chemoprevention. (National Cancer Institute, 1998) High levels of testosterone may increase the development of prostate cancer. For this reason it is extremely uncommon for a man who no longer creates testosterone to develop prostate cancer. And, stopping the body’s production of testosterone, called Androgen deprivation therapy, often shrinks advanced prostate cancer. See the Treatment Options section for more information. (“Prostate Cancer: Risk Factors and Prevention,” 2014) As previously noted screening for prostate cancer is done to find traces of cancer in otherwise healthy men. The two most commonly used tests to screen for prostate cancer are: the PSA blood test and digital rectal examination (DRE). A DRE is a test in which the doctor inserts a gloved lubricated finger into a man’s rectum and feels the surface of the prostate for any irregularities. (“Prostate Cancer: Risk Factors and Prevention,”

Prostate Cancer is a common type of cancer for men. It is cancer in a mans prostate which is a small walnut-sized gland that produces seminal fluid. From the standpoint of natural history and chance of progression in the individual patient, prostate cancer is one of the most variable of all tumors. The cancer itself may behave in a highly indolent matter and be localized in the prostate gland for years, with the patient’s death being due to other diseases. In 1853 J. Adams, who was a surgeon at The London Hospital, first reported that this condition was a rare case, but 150 years later has become more of a health problem in males. Within the years the numbers increased in prostate cancer cases and physicians learned that it

The men whom underwent screening were exposed to unnecessarily harm of treatment. In contrast, the ERSPC trial indicated a decrease in mortality via PSA and DRE screening (National Cancer Institute, 2017). In support, PSA detects benign tumours however, discovery of tumours does not reduce death rate. However, in the United Kingdom 2006, 35,515 men diagnosed with prostate cancer, 10,168 of that died from the disease (rokar Dasgupta, 2012). It’s thought that PSA screening in general, gives rise to expectancy of life, prevents advance prostate cancer and prostate cancer related deaths, reduces the number of biopsies with negative results outside screening programme. In divergence, every 1 – 4-years attendance for screening, overtreatment, false reassurance of negative results and screening giving PSA false positive test results leading to unnecessary biopsies (rokar Dasgupta, 2012). In support, small tumours may not need immediate action, (over diagnosis, overtreatment). Overtreatment leads to complications, exposure to side effects; incontinence, erectile disfunction, and infection. Early detection doesn’t stop malignant growth with rapid metastasis. In addition, false positives given via PSA assay, leads to unnecessary treatment of healthy prostates, 25% of men that undergo biopsy have indolent PCa. Study shows, patients who’ve undergone PSA and prostatectomy, showed little reduction in PCa mortality in contrast to those on active surveillance over 12 years. There is

Unfortunately, prostate cancer symptoms may be asymptomatic during the beginning stages. Therefore, all males over the age of 50 should have routine physical examinations because it is only through some or all of the following tests that prostate cancer can be detected early. The first test I will be discussing is called the Digital Rectal Examination (DRE), which entails the doctor placing a "gloved and lubricated finger into the rectum in order to feel for any lumps in the prostate" (Cherath). Most prostate tumors start in the posterior area of the prostate, hence why the rectum is examined due to its location being behind the prostate gland. This type of pre-screening is less efficient than a PSA test, however, it can help men who have normal PSA levels and still have tumors. If the doctor feels there is a need for further testing after a DRE then he/she may request other tests to confirm the findings. Furthermore, the most common and routine blood test that helps detect prostate cancer is the Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) test. This blood test is used to "measure the amounts of PSA circulating in the blood" (Cherath). PSA is a protein made by the cells lining the prostate gland, and normal levels of this are 4.0 ng/mL and lower.