Summary: The Shortage Of Skin Cells

With all living organisms, a process known as cell respiration is integral in order to provide the body with an essential form of energy, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Oxygen, although an essential part of this process, can form reactants from colliding with electrons associated with carrier molecules. (pb101.rcsb.org, 2017). Hydrogen peroxide is an integral product of this reaction but is known to impose negative effects on the body if high levels are introduced. Explicitly, this reaction is caused “If oxygen runs into (one of these) carrier molecules, the electron may be accidentally transferred to it. This converts oxygen into dangerous compounds such as superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide, which can attack the delicate sulphur atoms and metal ions in proteins.” (pdbh101.rcb.org, 2017). Research has suggested that the hydrogen peroxide can be converted into hydroxyl radicals, known to mutate DNA, which can potentially cause bodily harm due to DNA’s role in the synthesis of proteins. These radicals can cause detrimental effects on the human body, and studies have suggested a link to ageing. Due to the harmful effects of these H2o2, it is important that the body finds a way to dispose of hydrogen peroxide before concentrations are too great.

Humans undergo several stages during their lifetime including growth, development, reproduction and senescence. Senescence is defined as the deteriorative biological changes that organisms experience as they age eventually leading to death. These changes include low metabolism, a weak immune system, memory loss, poor vision and loss of hearing. Senescence begins in humans during their post-reproductive years. However, gerontology research has shown that individuals who reproduce late have longer life spans compared to individuals who reproduce early. Nonetheless, it does not indicate that senescence is inevitable. All organisms experience senescence,

At the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) they conducted a study on age-related cell damage

It is a known fact that all measures of physiological function decline in human aging. While genetics certainly play a role in the declining of physiological function with age, it can be argued that a fundamental part of aging can be reflected by chemical processes resulting in the appearance of harmful side products of the normal metabolism over time. When enzymes speed up reactions it is harder to slow them down. At the same time side reactions are constantly occurring and more and more unwanted side products are continuously being formed.

When we’re young, our cells have a very strong defense system known as superoxide dismutase (SOD) that kicks free radical butt. But as we get older, SOD doesn’t work as well. Without SOD keeping the peace, the free radicals have a field day and wreak as much damage as they possibly can causing our cells, and eventually us, to die. Free radicals have also been linked to a number of diseases such as cancer, dementia and heart disease.

Normal aging is a gradual decline in certain processes (Gladyshev, & Gladyshev, 2016). The decline is not static and can be increased or reduced depending on choices made (Gladyshev, & Gladyshev, 2016). Changes commonly attributed to aging include declines in the five senses, most organ systems, appearance and brain function (Tully, 2016). The five senses include reduction in taste buds, smell, ability to hear high frequency sounds and speech discrimination, reduced ability to see in the dark and a reduction in tactile sensory (Tully, 2016). In the organ systems there is a reduction in the hearts response to work, bone mass, skin turgor, vital capacity in the lungs, renal and colon function (Tully, 2016). Most notable is the age-related changes

In order to better understand aging-associated diseases, it is first necessary to define what aging is. Aging is a complex, multifactorial process of harmful mutations in cells and tissues that are accumulated over time and result in an increased risk of disease and, eventually, death (Tosato, Zamboni, Ferrini, & Cesari, 2007, p. 401). Contrary to the belief that aging can be cured through medical advances, it is scientifically accepted that, while human life expectancy has increased, the human life span has remained largely unchanged for the past 100,000 years (Tosato et al., p. 401). Therefore, future developments in aging research ought to focus on addressing treatment and prevention of major aging-associated diseases that will

These superoxides may be dangerous because they alter the structure of iron and protein via reduction. They may also undergo dismutation to form hydrogen peroxide which, in turn, gives rise to hydroxyl radicals, the most reactive ROS (Gulumian and Van Wyk, 1987; Agarwal et al., 2005). Hydrogen peroxide is not a free radical but its neutral charge allows it to pass through cell membranes and so this makes it very dangerous (Kurutas, 2015). Other internal or endogenous sources for these free radicals are inflammation, xanthine oxidase, peroxisomes, phagocytosis, exercise and ischaemia. Exogenous factors which lead to the development of these ROS include smoking, ozone, environmental pollutants, radiation, pesticides and drugs (Lobo et al.,

Glucose enhances the aging process when it bonds to a protein or lipid molecule without undergoing enzymatic reaction. As this process progress, damage will occur between adjacent proteins. For example, irreversible dryness and loss of elasticity occurs in collagen and elastin shown as wrinkling of the skin that is prominent in aging. Proteins such as collagen and elastin will lose its structural integrity over time, and increase amounts of glucose contributes the advance the damaging process.

Scientists theorize that this process is made possible by the help of sirtuins. As stated before NAD helps sirtuins work more effeciently. Unfortunately, NAD levels decreased in humans as we age. While evidence to support the theory is limited, many scientists are excited about what has been learned so far.

The way God created us as humans is a life cycle where eventually late adulthood comes with the biology of aging. Santrock (2013) describes five different theories of why humans age (p. 541). The evolutionary theory explains that aging is more of a natural selection process, and diseases occur in the elderly because they “would have been eliminated” if they were in younger people (Santrock, 2013, p.541). Cellular clock theory describes how cells get tired of dividing after they have been reproducing for so long (Santrock, 2013, p.541). Free-radical theory explains when “cells metabolize energy the by-products include unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals” (Santrock, 2013, p.541). The unstable oxygen molecules can damage DNA and other structures inside the cell (Santrock, 2013, p.541). Mitochondrial theory describes how aging occurs because of the mitochondria essentially wearing out and becoming less efficient (Santrock, 2013, p.542). Mitochondria are the cell’s “power house,” and they convert energy inside the cell (Bailey, 2008). The last theory, hormonal stress theory, illustrates the effects of stress, especially long term stress, on aging (Santrock, 2013, p.542). Stress released hormones which depress the immune system making people more susceptible to disease (Santrock, 2013, p.542). There are many theories about why human’s age, and all of them may be true, but regardless aging is inevitable and so are its effects.

According to theory of aging, free radical interferes in this case. Aging is the apparently unavoidable decrease in physiologic function that happens after some time. At least four main theories of aging have been discussed that imply to clarify much or majority of the reason of biological aging:

Telomeres are directly correlated to the aging of a human body. Although some people might think that shorter telomere lengths are detrimental, the natural shortening of these telomeres are essential to healthy and normal aging. It is natural for cells to divide through mitosis, but each time cells are split telomeres are lost through the process. This is why the telomere maintenance system was evolved to protect the ends of chromosomes (Prescott, Kraft, & Chasman, 2011). Every time a cell is divided, its telomeres are weakened, and stress can accelerate this weakening, and biologically age the person. As a

Aging is the process of becoming older, as we age, multiple mutations occur that concern all the processes of aging well as it compromising a number of different genes. There are many theories of biological aging, such as the Cellular Aging Theory, Immunological Theory, and the Wear and Tear Theory. The Cellular Aging theory describes the process of aging in which cells slow their number of replication, thus giving each species a “biological clock that determines its maximum life span” and how quickly one 's health will deteriorate(Hooyman, 42). After a certain number of years, each cell which follows an apparent biological clock starts to replicate itself less, thus the specific individual or species slowly deteriorates. This theory gives

Causes of aging are very uncertain. Besides, there are several factors which predispose an individual to premature aging. Current theories suggest that this process occurs to due to cellular damage such as DNA oxidation by free radicals causing