The Smokers After Quitting Cigarettes : Meta Analysis

In the United States, smoking cigarettes is the number one preventable cause of morbidity and death (Bergen, 1999), and accounts for $300 Billion in health care costs and economic productivity loss (Jamal, 2015). While the national smoking rate is 16.8% (CDC, 2016), specific demographics are more susceptible to developing smoking habits: people who live below the poverty line (10.9% higher), disabled or with a limitation (6.2% higher), and males (4.7% higher) (Agaku, 2014).

Hwang, S.W., Chambers, C., Chiu, S., Katic, M., Kiss, A., Redelmeier, D.A., & Levinson, W.

As per Healthy People 2020 most Americans do not consume healthy diets and are not physically active at levels needed to maintain proper health. As a result of these behaviors the nation has experienced a dramatic increase in obesity in the U.S with 1 in 3 adults (34.0%) and 1 and 6 children and adolescents (16.2%) are obese. In addition to grave health consequences of being overweight and obese. It significantly raises medical cost and causes a great burden on the U.S medical care delivery system ("Healthy People 2020," 2014, p. 1).

The pathophysiology of obesity is when there is a buildup of excess body fat. This excess body fat is determined by calculating a person body mass index (BMI). The BMI is calculated by an individual’s weight in kilograms divided by the square of a person’s height in metersthis allows us to come up with appropriate range of weight to an individual’s height. The body mass index is used to find out if an individual is overweight or obese. Individuals who’s BMI that have a range of 25 to 29.99 are thought to be pre- obese and overweight When an individual body mass index has surpassed 30kg this person is considered obese. As an individual’sBMI increases they become part of a different class of obesity there’s class I which is 30-34.9, class II

In the study, 787 smokers in Massachusetts were tracked after they quit smoking for five years. During that time, they answered three surveys about their smoking use. With each survey, an

Grier, T., Canham-Chervak, M., Sharp, M., & Jones, B. H. (2015). Does body mass index

Obesity rates are soaring throughout North America (What Is Obesity?, 2013). With obesity reaching almost epidemic proportions in the United States, and the threat of a global epidemic, we must watch this alarming increase carefully ( Health Risks of Obesity, 2013). Obesity is defined as: "…an excess of adipose tissue…" (A Report of the Surgeon General, 2014). The two most common measures of obesity are Body Mass Index (BMI is a ratio of weight to height) and relative weight index, such as percent desirable weight (Body Mass Index , 2013). BMI is the most frequently used measure of obesity as it has a strong correlation with more direct measures of adiposity, such as underwater weighing (A Report of the Surgeon General, 2013). Some

Crawford, D., Jeffery, R.W., Ball, K. & Brug, J. (Eds.). (2010). Obesity Epidemiology: From Aetiology to Public Health (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Although many individuals are uncertain about the increasing statistics associated with obesity, more than seventy percent of men and virtually sixty-two percent of women within the United States adult population are overweight or obese (Wilmore, Costill, & Kenney). Obesity refers to the condition of having an excessive amount of body fat. If an individual’s amount of body fat becomes too excessive, he/she is at a much greater risk of developing life-altering diseases such as heart failure, hypertension, type II diabetes, cancer, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, etc. (Wilmore, et al., 2008).

The evidence is sufficient to conclude that there is a causal relationship between smoking and addiction to nicotine, beginning in adolescence and young adulthood. 2. The evidence is suggestive but not sufficient to conclude that smoking contributes to future use of marijuana and other illicit drugs. 3. The evidence is suggestive but not sufficient to conclude that smoking by adolescents and young adults is not associated with significant weight loss, contrary to young people’s beliefs.

Source: CDC, National Center for Health Statistics, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Health, United States, 2002. Flegal et. al. JAMA. 2002;288:1723-7. NIH, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults, 1998.

James, W. P. (2008). The epidemiology of obesity: the size of the problem. Journal of Internal Medicine, 336-352. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu:2048/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=9ede2d6d-4d02-42e9-aff7-dd9b2486a3c3%40sessionmgr4004&vid=8&h

Farrell, R. M., Metcalfe, J. S., McGowan, M. L., Weise, K. L., Agatisa, P. K., & Berg, J.

One major advantage of tobacco cessation counseling can be described as a “…good evidences that quitting smoking at any age results in significant health gains” (Census and Statistics Department, 2000; Skaar et al, 1997; Abdullah & Husten, 2006, p. 461). As Lightwood and Glantz (1997), Lightwood (1999), and Shields (2002) referred the only known way to reduce cancer risk in smokers is to complete cessation, which results in a 35% lower risk death due to tobacco related illness and a 64% reduced risk of tobacco related cancer (Anczak & Nogler, 2003). Due to the global tobacco control and systematic surveillance, this epidemic also links the states and community resources, integrated with guidelines and help to compile data. Smoking cessation

Smoking is the leading preventable risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cardiovascular disease (CVD), and lung cancer. Smoking cessation is a proven way to modify the natural course of COPD. Tobacco smoking is