Accelerators Create Matter from Energy• State the principle of a cyclotron.• Explain the principle of a synchrotron.• Describe the voltage needed by an accelerator between accelerating tubes.• State Fermilab’s accelerator principle 33.3 Accelerators Create Matter from EnergyBefore looking at all the particles we now know about, let us examine some of the machines that created them. The fundamentalprocess in creating previously unknown particles is to accelerate known particles, such as protons or electrons, and direct abeam of them toward a target. Collisions with target nuclei provide a wealth of information, such as information obtained byRutherford using energetic helium nuclei from natural a radiation. But if the energy of the incoming particles is large enough,new matter is sometimes created in the collision. The more energy input or AE , the more matter m can be created, sincem = AE/c². Limitations are placed on what can occur by known conservation laws, such as conservation of mass-energy,momentum, and charge. Even more interesting are the unknown limitations provided by nature. Some expected reactions dooccur, while others do not, and still other unexpected reactions may appear. New laws are revealed, and the vast majority ofwhat we know about particle physics has come from accelerator laboratories. It is the particle physicist's favorite indoor sport,which is partly inspired by theory.Early AcceleratorsAn early accelerator is a relatively simple, large-scale version of the electron gun. The Van de Graaff (named after the Dutchphysicist), which you have likely seen in physics demonstrations, is a small version of the ones used for nuclear research sincetheir invention for that purpose in 1932. For more, see Figure 33.7. These machines are electrostatic, creating potentials asgreat as 50 MV, and are used to accelerate a variety of nuclei for a range of experiments. Energies produced by Van de Graaffsare insufficient to produce new particles, but they have been instrumental in exploring several aspects of the nucleus. Another,equally famous, early accelerator is the cyclotron, invented in 1930 by the American physicist, E. O. Lawrence (1901–1958).For a visual representation with more detail, see Figure 33.8. Cyclotrons use fixed-frequency alternating electric fields toaccelerate particles. The particles spiral outward in a magnetic field, making increasingly larger radius orbits during acceleration.This clever arrangement allows the successive addition of electric potential energy and so greater particle energies are possiblethan in a Van de Graaff. Lawrence was involved in many early discoveries and in the promotion of physics programs in American universities. He was awarded the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physics for the cyclotron and nuclear activations, and he has an elementand two major laboratories named for him.A synchrotron is a version of a cyclotron in which the frequency of the altemating voltage and the magnetic field strength areincreased as the beam particles are accelerated. Particles are made to travel the same distance in a shorter time with each cyclein fixed-radius orbits. A ring of magnets and accelerating tubes, as shown in Figure 33.9, are the major components ofsynchrotrons. Accelerating voltages are synchronized (i.e., occur at the same time) with the particles to accelerate them, hencethe name. Magnetic field strength is increased to keep the orbital radius constant as energy increases. High-energy particlesrequire strong magnetic fields to steer them, so superconducting magnets are commonly employed. Still limited by achievablemagnetic field strengths, synchrotrons need to be very large at very high energies, since the radius of a high-energy particle'sorbit is very large. Radiation caused by a magnetic field accelerating a charged particle perpendicular to its velocity is calledsynchrotron radiation in honor of its mportance in these machines. Synchrotron radiation has a characteristic spectrum andpolarization, and can be recognized in cosmic rays, implying large-scale magnetic fields acting on energetic and chargedparticles in deep space. Synchrotron radiation produced by accelerators is sometimes used as a source of intense energeticelectromagnetic radiation for research purposes.Figure 33.7 An artist's rendition of a Van de Grasff generator.Gap"Dees"External beamFigure 33.8 Cyclotrons use a magnetic field to cause particles to move in circular orbits. As the particles pass between the plates of the Ds, the voltageacross the gap is oscillated to accelerate them twice in each orbit.

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Accelerators Create Matter from Energy• State the principle of a cyclotron.• Explain the principle of a synchrotron.• Describe the voltage needed by an accelerator between accelerating tubes.• State Fermilab’s accelerator principle 33.3 Accelerators Create Matter from EnergyBefore looking at all the particles we now know about, let us examine some of the machines that created them. The fundamentalprocess in creating previously unknown particles is to accelerate known particles, such as protons or electrons, and direct abeam of them toward a target. Collisions with target nuclei provide a wealth of information, such as information obtained byRutherford using energetic helium nuclei from natural a radiation. But if the energy of the incoming particles is large enough,new matter is sometimes created in the collision. The more energy input or AE , the more matter m can be created, sincem = AE/c². Limitations are placed on what can occur by known conservation laws, such as conservation of mass-energy,momentum, and charge. Even more interesting are the unknown limitations provided by nature. Some expected reactions dooccur, while others do not, and still other unexpected reactions may appear. New laws are revealed, and the vast majority ofwhat we know about particle physics has come from accelerator laboratories. It is the particle physicist's favorite indoor sport,which is partly inspired by theory.Early AcceleratorsAn early accelerator is a relatively simple, large-scale version of the electron gun. The Van de Graaff (named after the Dutchphysicist), which you have likely seen in physics demonstrations, is a small version of the ones used for nuclear research sincetheir invention for that purpose in 1932. For more, see Figure 33.7. These machines are electrostatic, creating potentials asgreat as 50 MV, and are used to accelerate a variety of nuclei for a range of experiments. Energies produced by Van de Graaffsare insufficient to produce new particles, but they have been instrumental in exploring several aspects of the nucleus. Another,equally famous, early accelerator is the cyclotron, invented in 1930 by the American physicist, E. O. Lawrence (1901–1958).For a visual representation with more detail, see Figure 33.8. Cyclotrons use fixed-frequency alternating electric fields toaccelerate particles. The particles spiral outward in a magnetic field, making increasingly larger radius orbits during acceleration.This clever arrangement allows the successive addition of electric potential energy and so greater particle energies are possiblethan in a Van de Graaff. Lawrence was involved in many early discoveries and in the promotion of physics programs in American universities. He was awarded the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physics for the cyclotron and nuclear activations, and he has an elementand two major laboratories named for him.A synchrotron is a version of a cyclotron in which the frequency of the altemating voltage and the magnetic field strength areincreased as the beam particles are accelerated. Particles are made to travel the same distance in a shorter time with each cyclein fixed-radius orbits. A ring of magnets and accelerating tubes, as shown in Figure 33.9, are the major components ofsynchrotrons. Accelerating voltages are synchronized (i.e., occur at the same time) with the particles to accelerate them, hencethe name. Magnetic field strength is increased to keep the orbital radius constant as energy increases. High-energy particlesrequire strong magnetic fields to steer them, so superconducting magnets are commonly employed. Still limited by achievablemagnetic field strengths, synchrotrons need to be very large at very high energies, since the radius of a high-energy particle'sorbit is very large. Radiation caused by a magnetic field accelerating a charged particle perpendicular to its velocity is calledsynchrotron radiation in honor of its mportance in these machines. Synchrotron radiation has a characteristic spectrum andpolarization, and can be recognized in cosmic rays, implying large-scale magnetic fields acting on energetic and chargedparticles in deep space. Synchrotron radiation produced by accelerators is sometimes used as a source of intense energeticelectromagnetic radiation for research purposes.Figure 33.7 An artist's rendition of a Van de Grasff generator.Gap&#34;Dees&#34;External beamFigure 33.8 Cyclotrons use a magnetic field to cause particles to move in circular orbits. As the particles pass between the plates of the Ds, the voltageacross the gap is oscillated to accelerate them twice in each orbit.

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