How clonal selection and clonal deletion can be used to support that normal microbiota of a human trains the immune system to react to foreign antigens and not to self-antigens.
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How clonal selection and clonal deletion can be used to support that normal microbiota of a human trains the immune system to react to foreign antigens and not to self-antigens.
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- Describe the term "in-frame" and also the reason that it would be necessary for the generation of diversity in antigen receptors.The adaptive immune system uses multiple strategies to generate diversity in our ability to mount responses to a wide array of infectious microorganisms. These strategies include the generation of diverse repertoires of B-cell and T-cell antigen receptors, as well as polymorphism of MHC genes. The polymorphism of MHC genes differs from the diversity of lymphocyte antigen receptors in that: It involves DNA rearrangements at multiple gene segments in the MHC locus. It requires different enzymes than the RAG1/RAG2 recombinase required for antigen receptor rearrangements. It results in a diverse repertoire of clonally distributed receptors on dendritic cells, rather than on lymphocytes. It creates diversity between individuals in the population rather than within a single individual. It does not contribute to the transplant rejection responses that occur after organ transplantation between unrelated individuals.The T-cell receptor gene segments are arranged in a similar pattern to immunoglobulin gene segments and are rearranged by the same enzymes. While B cells and T cells differ markedly in their functions during an immune response, the two lymphocyte subsets share the enzymatic machinery and overall scheme for generating antigen receptor diversity. This is because: B cells and T cells recognize the same form of antigen expressed by an infecting pathogen. Animals with B cells developed first, and later evolving species then developed T cells. B cells and T cells both need enormous antigen receptor diversity to provide protection against the diversity of pathogens. Antibody and T-cell receptor gene segments are both flanked by similar recombination signal sequences. B cells and T cells both secrete their antigen receptor proteins after they are activated by antigen-binding.
- Which of the following best describes superantigens? O Superantigens are a class of antibodies that act as antigens presented by MHCII of antigen- presenting cells to overstimulate almost 30% of the T cells of the immune system, which overexpress proinflammatory cytokines leading to immunopathology that can result in multiple organ failures. O Superantigens are a class of antigens that can overstimulate almost 30% of the T cells of the immune system, which overexpress proinflammatory cytokines leading to immunopathology that can result in multiple organ failures. O Superantigens are a class of antigens that can overstimulate the B cells to produce a large number of non-specific antibodies that attack cells in our body leading to immunopathology and multiple organ failure. O Superantigens are a class of antigens that can overstimulate almost 30% of the B cells of the immune system, which overexpress proinflammatory cytokines leading to immunopathology that can result in multiple organ…Neutralizing antibodies are effective at preventing infection or toxicity mediated by pathogens or their toxic products. In fact, nearly all vaccines currently in use function by eliciting neutralizing antibodies. One example is the tetanus vaccine, in which neutralizing antibodies are generated against an inactivated form of the tetanus toxin (the tetanus toxoid). The most important feature of a neutralizing antibody is having high affinity for the antigen. being efficient at activating the complement cascade. having a high degree of multivalency, such as being a pentamer or hexamer of immunoglobulin monomers. being present at a high concentration in the circulation. 0 0 0 0The mechanism of cross-presentation by dendritic cells is an essential pathway for generating CD8 T cell responses to some intracellular pathogens. If this pathway did not exist, we would be highly susceptible to: Intracellular pathogens that can survive inside macrophage endocytic vesicles Intracellular pathogens that are able to evade antibody responses Intracellular pathogens that do not infect and replicate in dendritic cells Intracellular pathogens that can spread from cell to cell by inducing cell fusion Intracellular pathogens that infect and replicate in red blood cells
- Which of the following is true about innate immune system? Check all that apply. PAMPs recognize pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) such as TLRs, NLRs and RLRs present on/in host cells TLRs that are expressed on cell surface are mostly recognized by viruses, whereas intracellular TLRs are recognized by bacteria PRRs can induce inflammatory response, opsonization and phagocytosis Pattern associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) are molecules such as CpG DNA, cytosolic dsDNA and RNAs made by the host cellIllustrate the development of T-cells and B-cells comparing the stages and steps in these two processes. Draw the two schematics side by side to align the comparative stages (progenitors to mature cells) and steps and point out the key common mechanisms and differences if any. This needs to be a labeled drawing please.B-cell development in the bone marrow is an inherently wasteful process. Nearly half of the pro-B cells produced will die without progressing to the next stage of development. This massive loss of pro-B cells is due to detrimental DJH rearrangements on both alleles of the immunoglobulin heavy-chain locus. the failure of the pro-B cell to make a complete immunoglobulin heavy-chain protein. the inability of many pro-B cells to proceed with rearranging a V₁ to their rearranged DJH sequence. the failure of many pro-B cells to up-regulate Pax5 and become committed to the B-cell lineage.
- The adaptive response is a robust and critical component of the immune systemis able to combat specific microbial pathogens through the processing and presentation of antigens to specific immune cells Discuss the antigen presentation pathways that are used for viral pathogens and extracellular bacterial pathogens. Include the type of MHC used in each pathwayTRUE OR FALSE: In most cases where certain viral infections appears to be linked to an autoimmune disease, there is often a very clear indication of cross-reactive antigens between the pathogen and the autoantigens targeted by the autoimmune disease.to contrast the difference between the adaptive and innate immune system. What cells are involved, which one is most specific and which one is responsible for long lasting immunity. Try to include as much detail as possible when contrasting these two arms of the immune system. Requirements be at least 150 words.