Antimicrobial Biofilm

When antibiotic is used most of the bacteria die but a few bacteria with antibiotic resistance gene survive and reproduce and pass this advantage to their offsprings. This selective pressure exists naturally, however antibiotic misuse can be accused for fastening the spread of the antibiotic resistance gene [Refer to figure 2] (Learn Genetics 2015). Consequently, inappropriate antibiotic intake will lead to a greater chance of superbugs being developed. Antibiotic resistance can be defined as a new ability which a bacterium has developed to stay unattached in the presence of an antibiotic that was previously effective to destroy the bacterium (ABC science 2015). Four key mechanisms that has been identified for bacterial antibiotic resistance can be listed as: producing enzymes that inhibit the functionality of the drug, reducing the effectiveness of the drug by producing targets against which the antibiotic, reducing the permeability of the drug into the bacterium and active export of antibiotics using various pumps (Pogson 2012). All these mechanisms can be developed by any of the bacteria when the corresponding mutated gene of antibacterial resistance is received. The genes code for specific proteins, and variation in the gene leads to alteration of the shape of proteins. This leads to changing the functionality

Biological agents, coming in a variety of forms, have unique abilities amongst themselves and all categories of environmental health agents. Bacteria holds the ability to

Both, Dr. Bassler and Dr. Dalino, explain how bacteria communicate and work together through quorum sensing. As Basler explained in her TED talk, bacterial cells make single producing proteins that attract other surrounding bacteria. They are able to receive these signals trough the signal receptor protein; this protein allows the bacteria to recognize when the cell density is high or low. If the cell density is high enough to perform the desired action, the group behavior turns on and they are able to work effectively as a way to reach their purpose. By working together, they are able to control pathogenicity and virulence; they continue to grow in their biofilms until they know they will be successful. Additionally, these single producing proteins are specific for intra-species communication meaning that the protein

In the United States, the fourth most leading cause of death are hospital-acquired infections. Furthermore, it is estimated that greater than 65 percent of all bacterial infections are associated with biofilms. A greater understanding of biofilms is essential if we are to find effective methods to combat their formation in order to promote public health. Unfortunately, with bacteria in space behaving widely different than on Earth, this can cause a huge problem when it comes to health in space. First of all, biofilms could contaminate and bio-deteriorate the space habitats, the health of the crew, and the function of waste recycling or food production systems in extremely different ways then handled before on Earth. All of these issues would

Collecting and analyzing the growth of over the two different aspects of oral biofilms. Biofilms are one of the most common and abundant species in nature and have both beneficial and harmful effects on plants, animals, and humans. Reasons for studying biofilms range from medically to industrially and hit home to us in our very mouths. For this experiment we collected two types of environment that are nutrient rich for biofilms to grow in and then observed them over eight types of media selecting for different components. Our results

The development of biofilms on medical devices has become an increasingly prevalent problem as biofilms are making the bacteria stronger and more resistant to treatment which then increases the potential for patient infection (Dolan 2001). As a result, by studying biofilm strength, it is possible to better understand what factors allow this biofilm formation and how it can be reduced to limit the risks of patient infection.

Microbial synergy increases the net pathogenic effect and wound infections severity, which show a correlation between microflora of the gut, skin or oral cavity and pathogens infect wounds (Bowler et al., 2001). Staphylococcus aureus is a commensal gram-positive cocci that considered as a leading cause of wound infections and a potential cause of life-threating infections as sepsis, endocarditis, toxic-shock syndrome, osteomyelitis and pneumonia (Breathnach, 2013). It is an opportunistic pathogens possess many virulence factors, including formation of biofilm that resist host immunity (Foster et al., 2014). Methicillin-resistant S. aureus has a gene known as mecA responsible for resistance to methicillin which revealed high prevalence of infections lately

This pathogen secretes an Mottola et al. demonstrated that staphylococcus aureus and other microorganisms growing on the biofilms are not as resistant when isolated (2016). When staphylococcus strains were grown separately and treated with distinct antimicrobial agents, their minimum inhibitory concentrations were lower than on biofilms. Pathogens growing on biofilms are able to resist 10 – 10,000 times the concentrations of antimicrobial drugs that would kill an isolated strain; those concentrations can also be lethal for human beings. Mottola et al.’s experiment also showed that the minimum biofilms inhibitory and eradication concentrations values of antibiotics acting against isolated MRSA were higher than the minimal inhibitory concentrations values. some antibiotics such as for isolated pathogens were about the same for most of the antimicrobial agents studied. Although some antimicrobial agents such as Clindamycin were able to inhibit biofilms, but could not eradicate them (2016). Thus, there might still be some risks of

Penicillin was discovered by accident in 1928 by Alexander Fleming. After leaving bacteria containing Petri dishes in a lab over a weekend they became contaminated with mould. Alexander Fleming realised that the bacteria calls around the mould were dying. It was through further testing that he realised the mould was creating a substance that destroyed bacteria, which he later called Penicillin.

What is the purpose of microbes forming surface-attached communities? What benefits do such arrangements provide to the microbes?

Biofilms are hard to treat for many reasons. The main reason is because they are highly resistant to antibiotics. This is because the outer cells protect the inner cells from the antibiotic. Therefore, a long-term treatment of antibiotics is required to help the biofilm related infection. Living in groups, give bacteria properties they didn't have when living alone. Another reason they're hard to treat is because they are undefeatable by the body's natural immune defense system. Biofilms avoid chemical disinfection in two different ways. The first is that a gel-like polysaccharide layer provides a physical barrier against any outside agent, biological or chemical. The second is that even if a biocidal agent is introduced in a large enough quantity to eliminate the living bacteria, then

The formation of hydrated EPS layer surrounding a microorganism will provide protection against desiccation and predation (Suresh Kumar et al., 2007). Furthermore, EPS plays a principal role in cell aggregates formation and initiation of flocculation as well as biofilms. The production of EPS not only involves in anchoring of biofilms to hydrophobic surfaces but also accumulation of recalcitrant PAHs by sorption to exopolymer (Johnsen et al., 2005). This properties are significant to in removal of water pollutant (Singh et al., 2006) and selective plugging in MEOR (Sen, 2008). As a key constituent in cell floc and biofilm formation, EPS helps to facilitate the mechanism of cell adhesion to surfaces and other organisms, as well as uptake of nutrients (Laspidou and Rittmann, 2002). The EPS matrix in biofilm displays as a medium for biochemical interaction among cells in microbial aggregates (Laspidou and Rittmann, 2002). Besides that, EPS can also function as emulsifier and surfactants that are

The cells are highly motile via means of a single, polar flagellum (Todar, n.d.). Vibrios are found most often in marine and freshwater environments but prefer a slightly salty venue for prime growth to occur (Todar, n.d.). V. cholerae is part of the plankton ecosystem therefore it can easily move through multiple environments (Kraft, 2010). The bacteria also form biofilm colonies by blanketing the surface of rocks, plants, shells and the like, within their watery surroundings (Kraft, 2010).

The bacterial cell-to-cell communication process is referred to as quorum sensing (QS). Pheromones that act as cell-to-cell communicators are also called autoinducers (AIs), as they function to stimulate their own synthesis (Williams, Winzer, Chan, & Camara, 2007). AIs are produced and are continually released by bacteria at relatively low levels. The production, detection, and response of bacterial populations are determined by the concentration of the AIs. As binary fission occurs and the bacterial population density increases, there is an increase in the relative concentration of AIs in the nearby environment. As receptors bind to the AI, a quorum sensing circuit is initiated, and bacteria collectively alter gene expression for processes that benefit from collaborative action, such as: bioluminescence, sporulation, competence, biofilm adherence and formation, antibiotic

Excessive and indiscriminate usage of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multiple drug resistant (MDR) bacterial strains. The need for alternative approaches to combat these MDR strains stem from the fact that 16 million people die annually due to infectious diseases caused by them (Bjarnsholt. et al., 2005 and Rasmussen. et al., 2005). It has been repeatedly observed that bacteria within these specialised structures are around 1000 times more resistant to antibiotics than their free-living counterparts (Martinez and Baquero, 2002). Bacterial behaviour within biofilms is regulated by a process named quorum sensing (QS), where bacteria release chemical signals and express virulence genes in a cell density dependent manner (Ganin et al.