Civil Engineering

In the hydration reaction of Portland cement, the absolute volume of hydration products formed is less than the combined volume of the reacted cement and water. This volume reduction is called the chemical shrinkage. After setting of the cement paste, microstructure of the paste is developed as a result that the paste is not able to change its bulk volume freely; therefore, only a fraction of total chemical shrinkage results in a decrease of its external volume which is known as autogenous shrinkage. While, the rest of total shrinkage presents as an increase of the internal porosity. [Ivan Odler. Special inorganic cements. 1st ed. London: E & FN. Spon; 2000.] Another kind of bulk shrinkage of cement is called drying shrinkage. Drying shrinkage is caused due to the loss of moisture from cement paste to environment. To prevent these shrinkages, moist curing may be used. But, upon subsequent exposure to an atmosphere of normal humidity, the material slowly loses water and exhibits a shrinkage finally. In addition, during

The construction materials included in the requirements of the Buy American Act refer to structural steel or iron, steel or iron beams and columns, running rail, contact rail, and others. In situations where steel and iron are used as components or subcomponents of other manufactured products or rolling stock, these requirements do not apply. Therefore, it is important to establish the components of the materials used in construction projects and to determine if the requirements of the Buy American Act apply to them.

“Roman concrete (opus caementicium), like modern concrete, is an artificial building material composed of an aggregate, a binding agent, and water. Aggregate is essentially a filler, such as gravel, chunks of stone and rubble, broken bricks, etc. Binding agent is a substance which is mixed with the aggregate wet (water added) and solidifies when it dries, or "sets." Many materials, even mud, can be a binding agent, and used to make, what we generally call, mortar. Historically lime or gypsum, mixed with rubble stones, have been used as binding agents in making a strong mortar” (Roman Concrete).

Cement is made from a mixture of limestone, sandstone, ash, chalk, iron, and clay. Researchers discovered the Roman concrete contained aluminum tobermorite, a rare mineral that adds extra strength. Cement was used by plebeians because they were the farmers, craftsmen, laborers, and soldiers of ancient Rome.

The Development of Concrete

Roman building using cement (Labate, 2016) dates from the third century BCE. Cement was used with crushed bricks and rock to produce concrete used for building. The cement was made from volcanic dust (pozzolana), lime (calcium oxide) or gypsum (calcium sulphate). This mixture reacts when mixed with water, binding the concrete into a permanent, strong, impermeable structure. The Roman engineers discovered that the use of cement in their mortar dramatically increased its strength. Special types of cement were discovered and used for under-water structures like harbors and bridge piers. Roman workmen perfected the skill of building with concrete, some of which, like the Parthenon, are still intact and beautiful to this day. During the first century CE, Rome had a “Concrete Revolution”, many concrete buildings being built as skill developed.

It was discovered that if you combine clay and limestone and expose it to extreme heat temperatures that it will temper. After these substances temper, they are then crushed into a powdery substance. At this point in the process this powdery mixture when mixed with water can be formed into many different shapes for building. The mixture then sets with time and air. It develops into a very sturdy material which can be used in the construction of buildings.

The development of concrete was a major step forward for Romans. Its strength, flexibility, convenience and low cost - when compared to any other building material - made arch, vaults and domes much easier to build. Roman concrete was typically made from a mixture of lime mortar, water, sand and pozzolana, a fine, ochre-colored volcanic earth, which set well even

In 1756 in Devon, John Smeaton developed a hydraulic lime which would go on to be succeeded by Portland cement (Milana, 2011). Further progress took place throughout the 1800s, but the actual concept of Portland Cement can be dated back to England in 1824. A man named Joseph Aspdin formulated a material produced from a combination of clay and limestone (Illingworth, 2012). Portland Cement took its title from its similarity in appearance to Portland Stone which was very commonly used in construction in England at the time.

Construction is the reason we are able to live the way we do and even though sometimes it can become very annoying, it is needed to accomplish the world around us. Construction needs to be more acknowledged and taken for granted

Marble, stone, iron, reinforced concrete, and wood can bee seen throughout history and across the globe being used as major building materials. Marble can be seen being used in the United States to create a well known national monument, the Washington Monument in Washington D.C. Then marble can be seen being used again in the past when it was used to create the Parthenon, the ancient greek temple dedicated to the goddess Athena. Stone was used in creating one of the seven wonders of the world the Great pyramid of Giza a tomb that would be dedicated to Pharaoh Khufu. Later, during the Ancient Roman times stone would be used again to create the Colosseum that would host fights to the death. Iron can be found in Paris, France both in the prominent Eiffel tower and again in the Sainte-Geneviève Library. As for reinforced concrete that was used as a major material in two quite large projects La Sagrada Familia and the creation of the shells on the Sydney Opera House. Lastly, wood can be recognized in the construction of the ancient Buddhist temple the Horyuji Temple, and again in the Pancho Arena where Soccer is celebrated. Altogether these five major materials have created these renowned works of architecture that maybe otherwise we would not have today without

Task 1 + 3 – Describe and compare fundamental techniques, processes, plant and materials used in groundworks, foundations and substructures.

The definition of high strength changes over the years as concrete strength used in the field increases. Any construction activity requires several materials such as concrete, steel, brick, stone, glass, clay, mud, wood, and so on. However, the cement concrete remains the main construction material used in construction industries. For its suitability and adaptability with respect to the changing environment, the concrete must be such that it can conserve resources, protect the environment, economize and lead to proper utilization of energy. To achieve this, major emphasis must be laid on the use of wastes and byproducts in cement and concrete used for new constructions. The utilization of recycled aggregate

In the last two decades, new and sustainable technology appeared to improve the mechanical and physical properties of construction materials, this technique is called Microbial Induced Calcite Precipitates

The materials that usually used for construction such as reinforced concrete, timber, brick, and also steel. In Malaysia, the steel has been used especially for the construction of electric tower, industrial building (factory), roof truss, bridge and more. However, the usage of steel for residential is limited because their usage depends on the accompany with the other material.