Clindamycin

BACKGROUND – E. coli is a food-borne bacterium that inhabits the bowels of warm blooded creatures such as humans and animals. If the individual is infected by E. coli, some symptoms can be “diarrhea, gas, abdominal cramping, fatigue, fever and vomiting.” (Pietrangelo”) If someone is infected with this bacterium, anti-biotics, which is explained by Oxford Dictionaries as “A medicine (such as penicillin or its derivatives) that inhibits the growth of or destroys microorganisms” can successfully treat the disease if it is outside of the digestive tract.

Antibiotics either stop the bacterial cell from reproducing or kill the cell. They can disrupt the bacteria by deterring

A study involving 200 patients showed that 21% developed diarrhea and 50% showed signs of PMC (4). Subsequent studies suggested that enteric bacteria play a role in the development of PMC, such as the finding that vancomycin is protective in hamster guts against clindamycin colitis (5). It appeared that broad-spectrum antibiotics seemed to be altering normal floral microbiota, providing wide-open spaces for the overgrowth of pathogenic organisms to occur.

This antibiotic works by inhibiting protein synthesis but not nucleic synthesis. Erythromycin has inhibitory effects on gram-negative cocci as well as some gram-positive bacteria. Chloramphenicol is a clinically useful antibiotic in combating serious infections caused by certain bacteria in place of potentially hazardous means of solving the problem. In lab tests, it has been shown that this medicine stopped bacterial reproduction in a wide range of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Health experts know that most antibiotic products interfere with the immune system and the digestive system. Most of these products quell probiotic bacteria

It also helps with the prevention of PCP in HIV-positive patients, but should be used cautiously due to the incidence of adverse reactions. This drug is also active against many strains of gram-positive pathogens including: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Group A beta-hemolytic streptococci, Nocardia, Enterococcus. It also has activity against many gram-negative pathogens, such as: Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Shigella, Xanthomonas maltophilia, and Haemophilus influenzae, including ampicillin-resistant

It seems that human can start to overcome most of diseases by using antibiotics without any bad influence. But as time goes by, the side effects show up. The excessive use of antibiotics brings the disadvantages and problems with the heaps of advantages simultaneously. Antibiotics are not only exacerbating the health risk of animals, and human beings, but also exacerbating the environmental impairment. The antibiotics are used to treat and prevent diseases in human beings and animals’ medicine, but there are many kinds of risks deriving from the antibiotics therapies, which include the development and spread of resistant bacteria strains and environmental contamination; besides, the micro-biotic organism is also a big issue we need to concern about.

Antibiotics are amongst the most important medical discoveries and their introduction represents a remarkable success story (Hedin, 2011). The term antibiotics literally means against life (Walsh, 2000). Thus antibiotics can be used against any microbe such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. However, some people use the term to only apply to bacteria, but in this paper, the more appropriate term will be used.

The illustration is a bar graph of bacterial diversity in a patients gut before and after he/she received a weeklong course of antibiotics. Before the antibiotics were taken, the patient has a wide range of different species of bacteria. For nine months following the 7-day antibiotic treatment, the patient’s gut was left with nothing but one type of bacteria that was resistant to the original antibiotic (Zimmer). A single course of antibiotic can be detrimental to the flora, or gut microbiota, that is so important to one’s

They can also interfere with how proton pumps in the bacteria cell membrane work, decreasing membrane integrity (Raut & Karuppayil, 2014, p. 252)

Antibiotic have been essential tools for fight against bacterial infections since the early 20th century. Antibiotics fall under different groups based on the method of treatment. There are basically 3 main groups of antibiotics based on their mechanism of action, i.e Cell wall Disruptive Antibiotics like beta lactams, Protein synthesis inhibitors and nucleic acid

Antibiotics used in this experiment were Penicillin, Chloramphenicol, Tetracycline, and Erythromycin. Penicillin works by attacking bacteria’s peptidoglycan protein links and breaking down the cell wall. Penicillin works on gram negative bacteria but works better against gram positive bacteria. Chloramphenicol and Erythromycin work similarly by inhibiting bacteria’s protein synthesis, which inhibits overall bacterial growth. Both Chloramphenicol and Erythromycin work on both gram negative and gram positive bacteria. Chloramphenicol inhibits protein chain elongation by interfering with the peptidyl transferase activity of the bacterial ribosome at the 50S ribosomal subunit, that prevents peptide bond formation. Erythromycin also binds at the

In the recent years, there has been considerable research in re-understanding the older antibiotics and also finding new ones. Distamycin, an antibiotic is known to specifically target the minor groove of DNA. Another class of compounds, the lexitropins which contain a thiazole moiety and very related to Distamycin have also showed similar modes of action (23) Chromomycin A3 which is an anthraquinone antibiotic is produced at the fermentation of Streptomyces griseus is known to block macromolecule synthesis via reversible interaction with DNA template only in the presence of divalent metal ions such as Mg2+. New studies unearthed that the formation of two types of complexes occurs with different stoichiometry’s and formation constants, a 1:1

Each antibiotic has a mode of action that is specific to its function of effectiveness on the bacteria it will attacking. Penicillin for example has enzyme inhibition that causes inhibition to bacterial cell wall synthesis, specifically the cross linking peptides. When using this antibiotic on the bacteria, it is expected to work on gram positive but not gram negative because it doesn’t have cross linkage within its cell wall to be inhibited. As for chloramphenicol, erythromycin, and tetracycline they each inhibit protein synthesis in various steps of translation. Since proteins are necessary for all cell growth these are very effective inhibitor

The variety of bacteria that lives in our world today is endless. With variety of bacteria comes a numerous amount of adaptations and enhancements that the bacteria develops, including antibiotic resistance. Escherichia coli, better known as E.coli, is a gram-negative bacteria with several different types of clones with a variety of effects. E.coli often enters the intestinal tract as soon as an infant is born and some forms of it are not pathogenic but rather beneficial to the body(Kaper et al, 2004). When infected with pathogenic E.coli, the body often responds, depending of the type of pathogenic E.coli, with diarrhea, vomiting, upset stomach. etc. The rate at which E.coli is adapting, is creating a much more difficult job to find antibiotics that can eliminate the growth of this bacteria (Tadasse et al., 2002).