Drosphila Melanster

Of the many functions of proteins, catalysis is by far the most vital. When catalysis is not present, most reactions in the biological systems take place very slowly to produce at an adequate pace for metabolising organism. The catalysts that take this role are called enzymes. Enzymes are the most efficient catalysts; they can enhance rate of reaction by up to 1020 over uncatalysed reactions. (Campbell et al, 2012).

Enzymes are types of proteins that work as a substance to help speed up a chemical reaction (Madar & Windelspecht, 104). There are three factors that help enzyme activity increase in speed. The three factors that speed up the activity of enzymes are concentration, an increase in temperature, and a preferred pH environment. Whether or not the reaction continues to move forward is not up to the enzyme, instead the reaction is dependent on a reaction’s free energy. These enzymatic reactions have reactants referred to as substrates. Enzymes do much more than create substrates; enzymes actually work with the substrate in a reaction (Madar &Windelspecht, 106). For reactions in a cell it is

Enzymes are biological catalysts, which speed up the rate of reaction without being used up during the reaction, which take place in living organisms. They do this by lowering the activation energy. The activation energy is the energy needed to start the reaction.

Enzymes are a very important to the biological process. Enzymes help break down food and are essential in helping convert that food to energy. Enzymes have a single function, which makes them unique and need specific conditions in order for the reaction to occur. Every function in an organism has its own unique enzyme (What are enzymes?). One important thing to know about enzymes is that they are proteins. According to rsc.org enzymes are efficient catalysts for biochemical reactions and they, “speed up reactions by providing an alternative reaction pathway of lower activation energy” (Enzymes).

Catechol, in the presence of oxygen is oxidized by catechol oxidase to form benzoquinone (Harel et al., 1964). Bananas and potatoes contain catechol oxidase that acts on catechol which is initially colorless and converts it to brown (Harel et al., 1964). In this experiment, the effect of pH on the activity of catechol oxidase was conducted using buffers ranging from pH2 to pH10. Two trials were conducted due to the first trial results being altered by an external factor. The results were acquired by taking readings every 2 minutes for 20 minutes from a spectrophotometer and then recorded on to the table. The data collected in the table were then made into graphs to illustrate the influence of pH on the catechol oxidase catalyzed reaction. After analysis, the data revealed that pH did have a significant influence on the enzyme as recorded by absorbance per minute. However, the data was collected was not accurate due to external factors, thus the results are debatable and should be experimented again for validation.

Enzymes are a key aspect in our everyday life and are a key to sustaining life. They are biological catalysts that help speed up the rate of reactions. They do this by lowering the activation energy of chemical reactions (Biology Department, 2011).

METHODS: In this experiment, the instructor provided us with 30 ebony individuals and 20 wild type individuals. In order to get an exact amount of each type, we anesthetized the flies and counted them off by gently using a fine point paint brush. Then all 50 Drosophila were put into a population cage which had a lid that had six holes for the centrifuge tubes. Two food tubes and four clean, empty tubes were added on the first day. Each food tube consisted of half a cup full of food mixed with 6-7 milliliters of water. This was the fly medium. The food should turn blue once the water is added. Each tube was labeled with a number and with the date. Every two to three days we added one more food tube until all 6 tubes contained the fly medium. After all 6 tubes were filled, the following days after we exchanged the first food tube with a new food tube. At the end of the experiment, we fed the flies with a total of 8 food tubes. Then the flies were anesthetized, again. At the end of this four week lab, the number of living ebony and wild

Fruit flies with normal wings have a higher population and greatly outnumber the population of fruit flies with dichaete or vestigial wings.

Drosophila melanogaster were studied to test whether evolution occurred in the population by analyzing the genotype and allele frequencies for 7 weeks. If evolution was occurring, then the aforementioned frequencies would change instead of remaining constant as they would if no evolution was occurring. The hypothesis of this lab is that evolution will occur due to the violation of three Hardy-Weinberg principles. This lab was carried out using 20 flies to start, 5 each of male and females that were homozygous ebony and wild type. New culture vials were made every other week when the flies were scored. On alternate weeks, the adults were transferred to a fly morgue. The results showed that the ebony allele frequency increased and the wild type

The dumpy gene is experimentally determined by recombination data to be on chromosome 2L at 13 map units. Its form of inheritance down the generations is autosomal recessive, though there are variations that are homozygous lethal. There are multiple mutant alleles that make up the dumpy gene in D. melanogaster. The three primary effects of these alleles are, oblique (dpO), vortex (dpV), and lethal (dpl). Oblique shapes the wings, vortex causes thoracic abnormities, and lethal causes mortality at the larval stage (Carmon, 2010). In dumpy dominant (dpyD), the phenotype is represented with oblique wings and a thoracic vortex. In the dumpy clip wing (dpyo2), the oblique wing is shorten and without vortex. These phenotypic effects are more pronounced in females than in males for the dpyo2. In dumpy oblique lethal vortex (dpyolv), has smaller body and leg size compared to dpyD and dpyo2. However, it still possesses the oblique wing phenotypic feature. Some phenotypes go extinct due to homozygous lethal genes, such as dpyolv when paired with dumpy oblique lethal of Meyer (dpyolM). This combination results in progeny with very high mortality rates, and usually none survive. Incomplete dominance in dumpy flies results in suppression of variegation, which does not always affect D. melanogaster negatively. This is because the suppression of variegation, in

Enzymes are central to every biochemical process. Due to their high specificity they are capable of catalyzing hundreds of reactions that signifies their vast practical importance.

During the first week of the experiment the flies were sorted into the two starting populations. Flies were placed on a glass sorting plate sitting on a petri dish filled with ice to keep the flies cool and sedated. A dissecting microscope was used to observed and sort the flies by sex and pigment type into 4 categories, female wild, female mutant, male wild and male mutant. Using an aspirator consisting of a vial and rubber hose, 2 of each type of fly

In the BioOne Research article, Researcher have examined different fruits and vegetables acidics. The researchers collected fruits and vegetables to see how many were or not contained with larvae. With a fruit that have a strong acidic cause the sample to have less amount of larvae than the ones that did not have a high amount of acidic. As there result, researchers found that the citrus peels such as lemon or tangerine can reduce the amount of infested Queensland Fruit Fly larvae. At the table of the next page, you will see the classification of the Bactrocera Tryoni provided by National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and Integrated Taxonomic Information System

The enzyme catechol oxidase, extracted from masticated potato (Solanum tuberosum) lowers activation energy, as it is a catalyst. This enzyme can react with catechol to produce benzoquinone and water. Catechol oxidase is tested against a multitude of phosphate buffers, acidic, neutral and basic pH values, and chilled temperatures to hot temperatures. The purposes of these testes were to determine the optimal temperature and pHs at which catechol oxidase performs at. The method to measure results was the usage of a spectrophotometer (Vernier Spectrouis Plus). The spectrophotometer measures the absorbance levels of the pigment excreted when catechol oxidase undergoes a reaction. The high the absorbance, the more products produced and vise versa. The highest absorbance for the catechol oxidase submitted to different temperatures measured an average 0.6018 nm, when at 20 C. The highest absorbance for the catechol oxidase submitted to different pH values measured two averages of 0.658 at pH 6 and 0.6464 at pH 7. The conclusion taken from the available data explains that the optimal pH for catechol oxidase was between pH 6 and 7 and the optimal temperature was at room temperature at 20C.

Drosophila melanogaster stocks used for the behavior assays (2-choice assay and tracking assay) and molecular analysis (qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry), include the wild type Canton-S (CS) line, the UAS-GABA (B)-RX-RNAi (Root et al., 2008) (where X represents receptor subtype 1, 2, or 3), and Or X-Gal4 lines (Or 47a Gal4 and Or 42b Gal4), GH-146 Gal4, Orco-Gal4, 10x; UAS-CD8; GFP were purchased from the Bloomington stock center (http://flystocks.bio.indiana.edu). Virgin female flies from UAS-GABA (B) R1-RNAi line were crossed to males from Or 47a Gal4, also UAS-GABA (B) R1-RNAi females were crossed to males of Or 42b Gal4. Similar crosses were made using UAS-GABA (B) R2-RNAi and UAS-GABA (B) R3-RNAi lines and Or 47a and