Investigating And Determine Compatible Naturally Based Elements That Can Potentially Replace And Be Integrated Into The Bone Tissue Essay

The skeletal system is made up of cartilage and bone. Both bone and cartilage are connective tissues, that is, they are composed of cells in a matrix with intracellular fibers. Just imagine connective tissue as a gelatin salad with grapes and coconut. The grapes would represent cells, the gelatin the support material for matrix, and the pieces of coconut the intracellular fibers. By changing the amounts of each ingredient and adding extra substances, we can produce a material that is very hard like bone and can withstand weight or softer like cartilage which can be used as a cushioning material.

In 2011, Professor Susmita Bose, of Washington State University, modified a ProMetal 3D printer to bind chemicals to a ceramic powder, creating intricate scaffolds that promote the growth of bone in any shape. Prof. Bose’s goal is to, one day, be able to implant the bone scaffold with bone growth factors in such a way that the implant is dissolved by natural bone material in even load-bearing bone structures.

Throughout life the skeletal system is constantly changing. Bone modeling, formation and growth of bones, occurs from birth to early adulthood resulting in increase in skeletal mass and changes in skeletal form. Naturally the peak bone mass is achieved in the third decade of life, meaning the bones are at their strongest state in human development. Bone remodeling, a response to micro trauma and stress on the bone, is a dynamic process that also occurs through life. Bone is composed of collagen type 1, a protein, minerals such as calcium and phosphate and bone forming cells (osteoblasts and osteocytes) as wells as bone resorbing cells known as osteoclasts. Calcium is a main contributor of bone strength. In fact 99% of calcium is stored in bones and teeth with one percent remaining in the blood. The process of bone remodeling is activated by stressors such as weight bearing and is necessary to maintain bone mass in an adult. It’s a dynamic process in which bone resorption is always

Bone tissues or osseous tissue- is a hard connective tissue that consist of living cells dispersed in an organic and mineral matrix, the organic portion of the matrix contain collagen fibers and other organic molecules. The mineral part contain contain tricalcium phosphate crystal call hydroxyapatite and calcium carbonate (478)

In addition polymers composites have shown to be able to induce bone formation and enhance bone cell adhesion [75]. Table 1 shows the summary of bone graft substitute materials, which are also discussed below.

In recent years, advancements in the field of tissue engineering coupled with a growing demand from orthopedic medicine has led to the interlacing of these fields. This is most evident in the area of development or betterment of orthopedic implants. The needs and uses for orthopedic implants vary, but generally these implants are designed to replace, repair, or support a damaged bone or joint, or to fix a deformation. Specifically when developing a device to fix a medical bone issue, tissue engineering plays a crucial role. Because the implant will be going inside the body, a main area of concern is the biological characteristics of the material used, and how these will affect the compatibility between the implant and body. There has been various studies conducted that show a correlation between the biocompatibility of a material and osteoblast induction. Therefore, when engineering a material it is imperative to maximize the biocompatibility in order to induce osteoblast production, ultimately healing the damaged bone. This review

mechanical behavior is of prime importance. The mechanical properties of bone varies with age. In this paper, the

Bone regeneration is a complex, well-orchestrated physiological process of bone formation, which can be seen during normal fracture healing, and is involved in continuous remodelling throughout adult life. However, there are complex clinical conditions in which bone regeneration is required in large quantity, such as for skeletal reconstruction of large bone defects created by trauma, infection, tumour resection and skeletal abnormalities, or cases in which the regenerative process is compromised, including avascular necrosis, atrophic non-unions and osteoporosis. Currently, there is a plethora of different strategies to augment the impaired or 'insufficient' bone-regeneration process, including the 'gold standard' autologous bone graft, free

According to Bucher, Dirksen, Heitkemper, Lewis & O’Brien (2007), “The main functions of bone are support, protection of internal organs, voluntary movement, blood cell production, and mineral storage.” Bones also provide the body with stability which prevents the body from collapsing and allows for weight bearing (Bucher, Dirksen, Heitkemper, Lewis & O’Brien, 2007). Bones are a major factor in the hematological system because red and white cell production occurs in the marrow of bones. Maintaining bone health consists of a balance of exercise, nutrition, lifestyle habits, proper body mechanics, immunizations, and stabilized hormones. As we get older, our bones get weaker and we loose more bone than it’s replaced. “Numerous factors such as loss of minerals, lack of exercise, and hormonal changes influence bone health as we age” (Patience, 2015, p. 78).

Tissue transplantation is the second-most common procedure after blood with over 2.2 million bone graft procedures conducted worldwide annually in the realms of orthopedics and dentistry. Surgical reconstruction, transplantation (autografts and allografts), drug therapy, artificial prostheses and medical devices are the current clinical treatment options for various tissue related disorders including bone tissue [63]. These treatment options have disadvantages such as severe pain, risk of infections, hematoma, immune rejection, donor site morbidity, transmission of viral (HIV, hepatitis-B) and prion proteins [64=135]. However, relatively few orthopedic biomaterials designed with bio-responsive characteristics have been translated into clinical

The PCL/Poly membrane by electrospinning the model proposed may not have demonstrated effective performance for therapy guided bone regeneration when used alone. However, improvements as standardization in its production or as their physical structure, could take it to be studied as a biomimetic scaffold or as a carrier of other substances that promote guided bone

McCormack et al. [53] also studied fatigue of cemented replacements under torsional loads. They found that the pores in the PMMA have less cracks initiated as compared to PMMA/metal and PMMA/bone interfaces. Nallaa et al. [54] studied the in vitro fatigue in human cortical bone. Jin et al. [55] reviewed hip joints tribological aspects by considering cartilage substitution, the natural hip joints, as well as tissue engineered articular cartilage. Mathias and Tabeshfar [56] reduces the necessity for costly and debilitating revisions by developing acetabular cup prostheses with a ceramic on ceramic bearing surface that could last longer and perform better. Simoes and Marques [57] designed and manufactured a composite femoral prosthesis. This prosthesis made up of multi-material structure composed of a cobalt-chrome core

The combination of bone grafting and membrane barriers has made it possible to regenerate bone in areas that were at one time considered hopeless. Furcations, the areas between tooth roots, are one example. In previous decades, it would have been considered almost impossible to grow new bone there. However, the combination of bone grafting with membrane barriers amplifies support for teeth, decreasing the chances of tooth loss in such cases.

The primary cellular components of bone tissue are osteoblasts and osteocytes, and these are distinguished by their location and their function.1 The osteoblast is the bone-forming cell that eventually becomes an osteocyte. During this intermediate changeover, the cells are referred to as intermediate cells. “Bone matrix is comprised of three elements: organic, mineral, and fluid. Organic components constitute 39% of the total bone volume, which contains 95% type I collagen and 5% proteoglycans. Minerals include primarily calcium hydroxyapatite crystals and contribute about half of total bone volume.”1 Within the matrix, collagen fibers are responsible for providing tensile strength. Eventually, calcification and ossification of the fibrous matrix forms individual bony trabeculae that together constitute a primary ossification center.2 The arrangement of the collagen/trabeculae along the length of the bone give the bone its tensile strength; the resistive strength against bending/breaking.1,2 The density of the bone is provided by calcium salts which are necessary to provide resistive strength against compressive forces, such as load/weight bearing activities.1 Stresses from weight bearing and using muscles provide the necessary stimulus for the formation and organization of collagen/trabeculae to form architecturally strong bones. Typically, when no injury or disease is present, bone

Regeneration has been defined as the reproduction or reconstitution of a lost or injured part to restore the architecture and function of the periodontium. To be considered a regenerative modality, a material or technique must histologically demonstrate that bone, cementum and a functional periodontal ligament (a new attachment apparatus) can be formed on a previously diseased root surface. Bone grafts and their synthetic substitutes have been used in an attempt to gain this therapeutic endpoint. However, among the graft materials to date, only autogenous bone of extraoral or intraoral sources and demineralized freeze dried bone allograft have human histological evidence to include them as regenerative materials. More recently the use of recombinant human bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP)-2 (Ishikawa et al. 1994), enamel matrix derivative (EMD) (Sculean et al. 1999), platelet-rich plasma (PRP) (Anitua et al. 2004), growth factors like platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) (Lynch et al. 1989) and recombinant human basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) (Murakami et al. 2003) have been proposed as a source for periodontal regeneration. Initial investigation has demonstrated that anorganic bovine bone matrix supports the attachment and proliferation of osteoblastic cells in vitro (Stephan et al. 1999). Indeed, human histologic studies have concluded that this bone substitute is osteoconductive and incorporated in new bone