Mast Cells Lab Report

The activated T lymphocytes expand, which results in proliferation of antigen-recognizing T lymphocytes, memory effector cells. The T lymphocytes enter the circulatory system and, via cell-cell interactions with endothelial cells of the blood vessel, migrate to the inflamed skin. (Lebwohl, 2003)

Psoriasis is mediated by helper T-cells that produce IL-17, an inflammatory cytokine that plays an important pathological role in psoriasis.2 Research has shown

Steele, P. (2016) Clinical Immunology Module 3. Lecture 1: Hypersensitivity. (PowerPoint slides: Narration) Retrieved from University of Cincinnati Immunology Blackboard: https://canopy.uc.edu/bbcswebdav/courses/2168-F_35MLSC3053001/16US_MLSC3053001_ImportedContent_20160413040126/Handouts/Mod3_Lecture1_Hypersensitivity.pdf.

IL-10: works with IL-4 to counteract IFN-gamma and IL-12; comes from monocytes, TH2 cells, CD8+ T cells, mast cells, macrophages, B cell subsets

The primary function of skin is to form a physical and chemical barrier to the external environment, against injurious insults. Harmful stimuli such as micro-organisms, ultraviolet radiation, toxic agents or irritants evoke a complex response known as inflammation. Inflammation is an essential response in the protection against injurious insults. The five classical signs of acute inflammation are pain, heat, redness, swelling, and functional loss. These signs can be explained by the different phases that the inflammatory response generally follows dilation of capillaries to increase blood flow, vasopermeabilization, leukocyte recruitment elimination of pathogens or injurious stimuli and resolution of inflammation [85]. At the molecular level,

Sjogren’s Syndrome is an auto-immune disorder that affects the entire body. The immune system protects our bodies from disease and infection, but with an autoimmune disease, the immune system attacks healthy cells in the body by mistake (Autoimmune Diseases, 2017). In Sjogren’s syndrome, the immune system attacks the glands that make tears and saliva. (Sjogren’s Syndrome, 2017). Pathogenic organisms and other foreign substances are detected by T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes because they contain antigens (McKinley, et al, p. 684). The immune system is generally very effective in distinguishing a self-antigen from foreign antigens; however, a malfunction involves the immune system reacting to self-antigens as if they

In the first process, NK cells recognize the target cell through its cell surface receptors. Here the infected cells coated with immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies bind to the IgG specific receptors (FcγR) expressed on the surface of NK cells. This receptor-ligand interaction activates the downstream signaling cascade of NK cells, which direct them to destroy the target cell by a process called antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. The second mechanism of recognition relies on the expression of killer activating (KAR) and inhibiting receptors (KIR) expressed on its cell surface. These receptors recognize a range of different molecules present on the surface of nucleated cells and regulate the functional outcome of NK cells. Once the activating receptor is engaged, a “Kill” instruction is issued to NK cells, that in turn activates perforin and granzyme mediated cytolysis. The “kill” signal, conversely, can be overridden when the signal is sent from the inhibitory receptor, a mode typically exploited by viruses in the suppression of NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity (Delves and Roitt, 2000). Other immune cells such as eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells also make a major contribution to the first line of defense mechanism. Basophils and mast cells contain IgE specific cell surface receptors (FceR) and exhibit high affinity for pathogens coated with the IgE antibodies. These cells are particularly important in the case of atopic allergies such as asthma and hay fever, wherein the allergen binds to IgE cross-links FceR and triggers the secretion of inflammatory mediators such as histamines and prostaglandins. Eosinophils, on the other hand, act as weak phagocytic cells and function mainly through the release of cationic proteins and reactive oxygen species (ROS) into the extracellular fluid. Collectively, these immune cells stimulate a rapid and

The pathology of asthmatic symptoms is quite complex, and includes the effects of mast cells, eusinophils, T cell lymphocytes, mactrophages, neutrophila, and epithelial cells, which collectively lead to inflammation. Pathologic qualities of asthma include goblet cell hyperplasia leading to mucus overproduction, basement membrane thickening with subepithelial fibrosis, desquamation of the airway epithelium, bronchial smooth muscle hyperplasia, and cellular infiltration with lymphocytes, neutrophils, and eosinophils. Airflow obstruction is caused by the smooth muscle constriction around airways, leading to wheezing, coughing, and chest tightness. Exposure to allergens, irritants (eg smoke), and viral infections can also

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is an inflammatory condition which affects the membrane lining of the nose; causing it to become sensitive to allergens such as pollen, dust and animal dander. During AR, antigens bind with immunoglobulin E (IgE) to form an antigen-antibody complex which then attach themselves to the surface of nasal mast cells; inducing a cascade of cellular events leading to mast cell degranulation and the release of histamine via exocytosis. The release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators on blood vessel and nerve endings results in the symptoms of AR such as sneezing, itching and nasal discharge (rhinorrhoea). AR which occurs the same time every year is known as seasonal AR or more commonly known as “hay fever”. Avoiding causative allergens is essential in the management of the symptoms of AR; however, drug treatment is used to alleviate and control its symptoms. This evaluation will focus on the use of H1 anti-histamines, corticosteroids and IgE therapy in the treatment and management of seasonal AR. (ARIA, 2008)

The APC’s, when activated, migrate to the lymph nodes and interact with T and B cells to initiate the immune response. Antigens gets broken down to peptide fragments and presented on the cell surface by major histocompatibility complex 2 molecules (MHC-II) to T cell receptors. For this reaction to be significant, a co-stimulatory signal is also needed to increase interleukin-2 (IL-2) production. IL-2 is a T cell growth factor that is necessary for T cell activation. When T cells are activated the Th2 cytokines are produced. In particular, IL-4 causes CD4+ cells to adopt Th2 properties and stimulates B and T cell proliferation, along with the upregulation of MHC-II expression. IL-4 also causes B cells to undergo class switching and produce IgE that is specific to the allergen. The IgE binds to the Fc receptors on mast cells and basophils and upon re-exposure to the allergen, mediators, mainly histamine, leukotrienes, and cytokines, are released from preformed granules in the cell.4 Another cytokine, IL-5, activates eosinophils and has a stimulatory role on B cell growth. Eosinophils, along with neutrophils, basophils, T cells, and macrophages produce more cytokines and inflammatory mediators, which keeps the inflammatory response active. This is known as the late phase of an allergic reaction, which is responsible for the persistent chronic symptoms of allergies. Chronic symptoms include swelling of the nasal

Rossi et al. show a significant increased concentration of IgG 16in keloid lesions and IgA and IgM are detected at higher levels in keloids compared to normal skin.17,18 The immune cell infiltrate in keloids includes T lymphocytes (CD3+, CD4+, CD45RO+, HLA-DR+) and dendritic cells (CD1a+, CD36+, HLA-DR+, ICAM-1+)19 The number of macrophages, epidermal Langerhans cells and mast cells are increased as well.20,21 . The number of mast cells and pruritus decrease in keloids after treatment with silicone gel sheets and mast cells may contribute to an elevated expression of hypoxia- inducible factor 1, alpha (HIF-1alpha) and VEGF in keloids.22,23The role of the inflammatory response in the formation of keloids has not been studied in details and remains to be elucidated.

At this point, the mast cell undergoes degranulation – the process of releasing chemical mediators held within granule stores in the cell- and begins the synthesis of lipid mediators, this is known as the immediate hypersensitivity reaction. The mast cell also transcriptionally activates cytokine genes that play a recruitment role in the late phase reaction (5). An overview of this pathway can be observed in figure

Dermographism is reported to occur in 25% -50% of healthy population among which 5% are symptomatic. Histamine is most likely a mediator, other mast cells such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, platelet activating factor, serotonin , chemotactic factors are not directly related. It has been hypothesized that the IgE-sensitized mast cells can react to unknown antigen which is induced by skin stroking. H.Pylori have an etiologic role in dermographism.

The epidermis of the skin has the functions of immune nonspecific defense and water retention due to barrier qualities. Nonspecific defense is innate and defined by the fact that it does not differentiate between foreign matters; it protects against all external materials rapidly (Stanfield, 2013, p. 675). The stratum corneum is the tough superficial layer of the skin, which is bound by non-nucleated cells called corneocytes. Corneocytes are keratin bundles bound by proteins and lipids. Lipids are necessary for the skin to function as a barrier in order to maintain moisture levels in the skin (WHO, 2009). Chronic atopic dermatitis (AD) is an inherited genetic skin disease which typically begins in childhood and is characterized by dry, itchy, and inflamed skin. Genetic defects in the production of filaggrin are the basis of dry skin and a risk factor for developing AD. Histamines produce1 the sensation of itch and are released into the skin as an immune response, triggered by inflammation. AD creates inflammation in the skin by autoimmune abnormalities, even without the presence of a bacteria, virus, or irritant. This chronic disease may be controlled through medical treatment

The development of Asthma is closely related to immunoglobulin E (IgE), a subtype of antibody molecule that normally response against antigen stimulation and induces various immune responses5. When exposed to specific antigens, IgE is released from B lymphocytes and binds to its receptors on immune effector cells (e.g. mast cell, basophil, eosinophil) to form IgE-receptor complexes. These complexes can cross-link with antigens and trigger rapid release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators, leading to local inflammation. On respiration tract, this reaction will lead to