Word Frequency Differences

Burgess and Hitch (1999) added to and tested the original model of the phonological loop. They created multiple lists: one with the combination of short and long words, one with short words, and one with long words. Burgess and Hitch predicted that the short list would have a higher recall rate, while the long list would take longer to memorize. However, the mixed list would take less time to recall but longer time to memorize (Burgess & Hitch,1999).

The purposed was to see is skilled adult readers could activate the meanings of high-frequency words using phonology when reading sentences for meaning (2016). This experiment was conducted with thirty-six English speaking university students. Their task was to select out of 48 English homophone pairs to complete the sentences correctly. Each pair contained contain a homophone high- frequency. Results showed that the participants clearly knew which was the correct spelling making their tested hypothesis correct that high skilled adult readers would be

This is a quality transition to the discussion of certain studies pertaining to the idea of a TOT state. Multiple studies with accompanying figures are reviewed, which involve the measurement of the TOT state. Findings indicate that word recall and the TOT resolution require the entire first syllable of the word to be uncovered, instead of just the first sound of the word. Additional studies found in the Phonology Is Everywhere section indicate that second-hand exposure to the first syllable of the “missing” word was mediated by a semantic connection, which may help resolve the TOT state. Supplementary, another experiment showed similar-sounding words in the same grammatical class may confuse the person in the TOT state, instead of helping them produce the correct word. The conclusion to this section was that only cue words from a different part of speech were helpful in resolving the TOT state (Abrams, 2008). Although results are indicated clearly, the conclusions would be better represented if Abrams summarized the statistical data before inferencing the results.

I find writing a picture book to be so much easier. That's only my opinion. They are fun to write, besides requiring a lesser word count. Depend on how busy a life someone has, will determine, work on a novel, short story, picture book, etcetera. Word counts matter, therefore, stories can be long or short. They should resort to some type of problem getting resolved. I can't count how many times I've decided I'm ready to work on a novel, then suddenly, a dark cloud came over me making me want to do something much quicker.

The aim of this experiment was to test how the automatic processing of reading interferes with the controlled processing of naming a colour. The findings support the original previous research (Stroop, 1935) as a significant difference was found which indicates that when the controlled process of naming a colour is not interfered with then it can be recognized faster whereas when the automatic processes of reading words is involved then the time taken to name the colour is slower due to the interference.

Concrete words can be defined as an object, as opposed to abstract words, which are an action or state (Walker & Hulme, 1999). Phonetic (or letter) fluency requires individuals to produce as many words as possible that start with a given letter, excluding numbers, proper names, places or words in different forms (Luo et al., 2010). This task puts less demand on the participants during the assessment. Therefore, it can be predicated that bilingual individuals will recall and produce more words during the phonetic fluency tasks, compared to semantic fluency task. Both tasks rely on vocabulary for word retrieval, which is accessing the mental lexicon (Luo et al., 2010). A study assessing verbal fluency differences between bilingual and monolingual college students found phonemic fluency tasks to be less challenging for both groups (Portocarrero et al., 2007). Both groups presented similar performances on phonetic fluency, however bilinguals performed significantly lower on a semantic fluency task (Portocarrero et al., 2007). Studies indicate that bilingual adults are more likely to perform better on verbal fluency when asked to generate as many words within a minute, during the phonemic fluency task (Salvatierra et al., 2007; Luo et al., 2010). This suggests the hypotheses of cross-language interference affecting semantic fluency, but not phonemic fluency because the participants showed significant differences in semantic fluency but not phonemic fluency. Taler et al. (2013) assessed the same task, however, they observed the subjects to repeat the words during the phonemic fluency task. The findings did not result in any differences of semantic and phonemic fluency performance in monolingual and bilingual groups. According to Lipski (2014) bilinguals are likely to mix the languages in attempt to speak monolingual in their second language. This may affect their use of compound

Lexical decision evaluates how quickly a person can classify words and non-words through the use of stimuli’s. The conditions of the study facilitated manipulations in visual and auditory stimuli’s to measure reaction time and accuracy when exposed to different circumstances, such as the auditory stimuli matching/mismatching the visual stimuli/words. This study found that congruent and incongruent conditions impacts accuracy and reaction time when choosing if the type of letter string presented is either a pseudo-word or a word. This finding suggests congruent or matching auditory words and visual words assists people in quickly recognizing a word or non-word and is more accurate with their decision. Incongruent or mismatched auditory words and visual words slow down peoples decision making and minimizes their choice from being correct. In addition, the findings of the study also suggest that pseudo-words and words had no effect on a person’s accuracy but rather their reaction time. The result for the types of letter string administered in the experiment proposed that the visual stimuli’s/words does not interfere with a person from correctly making a decision, but makes people slower in making a decision. Overall, this online

"Word recognition has been typically examined using lexical decision tasks in which participants are required to discriminate between real words and nonword foils. Using this task, a word has been recognized when a familiar letter string can be accurately differentiated from a novel one." Evans, Lambon Ralph, and Woollams (2012).

One long running approach to investigate how does higher-level information influence speech perception focuses on testing if lexical knowledge influences phoneme perception through top-down feedback, or

Other uncommonly spoken words, like “garage,” may have a lower level of activation and making its way into attention. This same type of reasoning can be applied with Vuilleumier & Schwartz’s visual experiment. EN and SV were more prone on picking up on the threatening stimuli, in this case, spider figures than they did figures that resembled a flower. Through the lens of Treisman, the spider figure would have a high threshold of activation, while the flower figures would have a lower threshold of activation.

McDermott (1996), therefore, conducted two experiments to investigate these possibilities. The first introduced a 2-day time delay between the times when subjects were presented with a short list of related words (e.g. thread, pin, eye, sewing) all of which corresponded to non-presented words (such as needle). The aim was to see whether the aspect of delay in comparison to a

Results from experiment one indicated that response latency times rised systematically as the questions necessitated deeper levels of processing—semantic as opposed to structural questions of the word (Craik & Tulving, 1975). Performance on the retention test increased significantly, from below 20% recognized for questions concerning structural characteristics to 96% for sentence questions (Craik & Tulving, 1975). The results have thus shown that different questions requiring different encoding strategies have yielded different response latency times. Furthermore, the different encoding questions were associated with marked differences in recognition performance; in particular, semantic questions were followed by higher recognition of the

Mentally he knew the names that were on each of the pictures but could not actually get the word out. He was then asked to try and indicate a phonological feature of the word, or another word that was similar to the target word, but he was unable to provide any information phonologically that was associated to the target word. The experiment preformed on” Dante in this article supports the two-stage model of lexical production regarding the lexical retrieval failure of words (Badecker at. El).

Increasing the number of words isn’t enough because the speech recognition system is unable to differentiate words like ‘to’ and ‘two’ or ‘right’ and ‘write’ (6 ,p.98).

Hypothesis 2: the generation effect is smaller for low frequency words than for high frequency words.