TOT

L.R. received a total overall score of 29, which was obtained during conversation and a picture description task, in which 300 syllables were analyzed. He obtained a percentile rank of 78-88% and a severe rating when compared to children of his chronological age who stutter. L.R.’s disfluencies consisted primarily of sound repetitions, whole and part word repetitions, phrase repetitions, and the

Phonological and semantic lists can cause high, strong rates of false memories. Phonological false memories would peat in shorter durations of a presentation, but semantic false memory rates would start to increase with more spread out presentation times. It is also theorized that the semantic and phonological lists are similar with spreading activation, but the processing could differ when it was the speed and depth. Semantic false memory requires deeper conceptual processing for the semantic false memory to activate. Shallow perceptual activation of phonological lures decay faster than semantic activation. When other factors are constant for false recall rates, the rates for phonological and semantic lists are similar. The False recognition rates for phonological lists are lower than semantic lists by twenty to thirty percent.

Sometimes songs get stuck in your head, other times it is a sentence that just won’t go away and sometimes it is something as simple as a single word that keeps repeating itself until it doesn’t sound like a proper word anymore.

The ability to communicate valuable information in text is crucial. Abrams (2008), author of Tip-of-the-Tongue States Yield Language Insights, establishes a purpose to explore cognitive processes that allow pop-up resolutions and documentations of changes in these processes with healthy aging. This hypothesis is derived from the idea that an older adult will have more tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experiences when compared to a younger population. A TOT state is a temporary inability to recall a known word at a given moment (Abrams, 2008). In this article, the author intends to establish an overview of research done with younger and older adults to determine the differences between populations as well as discuss

Sperry would place objects behind the screen, out of sight from the patient but within reach of either hand. They were then asked to report what they had seen. When words were presented to the right visual field and therefore processed in the left hemisphere, patients were able to read and report the words verbally. When words were presented to the left visual field and therefore processed in the right hemisphere, patients were unable to report the words verbally. They were able to select the item by touch from behind the screen, but were unable to say why they had selected the item. This concluded that the left hemisphere can identify words and name them, whereas the right hemisphere can also identify words but cannot name

Anomia emerges in the early stages of PPA, most patients remain in the anomic phase through most of the disease and experience a gradual worsening of these deficits over time. During the anomic stage, the naming of objects may become impaired and speech may display a choppy quality because of frequent pauses for word-finding. The word-finding and object naming aspects of anomia may present separate from each other. Word-finding deficits lead to simplification, circumlocution, substitution by fillers, and paraphasias. Simplification occurs when a patient uses a general word instead of an infrequent but more appropriate word. Circumlocution occurs when a patient appears to be “talking in circles” by circuitously articulating a thought when the concise word cannot be retrieved. Substitution by fillers occur when an individual says “the thing” or “the place” as an alternative to the missing word. Paraphasias occur when an individual substitutes incorrect words. Paraphasias can be phonemic (replacement of an incorrectly sounding word) or semantic (replacement of sounds within a word). Phonemic paraphasias are common in PPA but rare in AD. Word finding deficits may lead to “empty” speech which presents with typical intonation and fluency but expresses little information. Over the course of progression of PPA, the anomic stage may develop into one of the distinct four categories of PPA

Why does training more complex, atypical category items result in generalization to typical items, while the reverse training procedure which is training less complex an typical items does not affect production of atypical items?. To clarify the potential mechanisms underlying the effect of typicality treatment, it is useful to concisely review theoretical models of word retrieval. Majority theoretical models of naming agree that lexical access can be generally divided into two processes, specifically, semantic and phonological processes. These models, on the other hand fall along a range when addressing the details concerning to the relative timing of lexical access. One observation of naming suggests two chronological components to lexical access, namely lexical selection followed by phonological encoding (Butterworth, 1989, 1992; Levelt, 1989; Levelt, Roelofs,&Meyer, 1999). A different observation of naming conjectures that lexical access can have two levels but not certainly two stages (Dell, 1986; Humphreys, Riddoch, & Quinlan, 1988). Hence, activation of a word during naming consists of at least two closely interacting levels which are activation of the semantic representation as well as activation of the phonological form of the target word. Some views also assume that perhaps an intermediate is activated, namely, lexeme level.

Further evidence for the existence of the phonological loop comes from Conrads and Hulls (1975 in Passer, 2009) experiment in which they examined the effect of phonological similarity. They found that serial recall in a list of similar sounding words tended to yield poorer results with participants finding it difficult to remember compared to words that sounded different. It has also been found that recall in semantically similar words tended to have little or no effect, supporting the idea that verbal information is transferred in a phonological manner in working memory. In addition, Vallar and Papagno (1995 in Smith, 2007) found that the phonological store in brain damaged patients were dysfunctional.

Wernicke’s aphasia results not in a loss of speech, but in a loss of speech content. Someone with a less severe form of Wernicke’s aphasia may only insert a few incorrect or nonexistent words into their speech, while someone with a severe form may ramble on, using only jargon, meaningless or irrelevant speech with typical intonational patterns. The rate, intonation, articulation, and stress of speech remain normal and unaffected (“Types” n.p.). Comprehension and expression of speech tend to be impaired equally. If one ignores the content, the speech of a patient with Wernicke’s aphasia would seem normal. They speak in long, well-formed sentences, however they contain little to no real meaning (McCaffrey n.p.) Speech often includes verbal, literal, and neologistic paraphasias. Verbal paraphasias include substituting words that can be related to each other, for example, knife for fork. Literal paraphasias include made up words that have similar sounding syllables, for example, bife for knife.

To listen to these words, participants wore a pair of headphones and listened to each of the 24 novel words a total of 36 times in the exposure phase (Dumay & Gaskell, 2007, p. 37). Then, in the lexicalization test, the participants took a forced choice test and were instructed to push one of the two buttons in order to determine if there had been a pause in a spoken stimulus (Dumay & Gaskell, 2007, p. 37). Then, participants were instructed to give a free recall period to state as many of the new words as possible (Dumay & Gaskell, 2007). Then in the 2-AFC recognition test, participants heard the new word along with its foil and were given a forced choice test and were instructed to push a button when one of the words sounded familiar. In addition to the initial test, “The subsequent retests (12 and 24hr) used the same test battery but involved no exposure phase” (Dumay & Gaskell, 2007, p.

FOK judgment is about whether information is potentially available in memory or not. Also FOK is a judgment about one's confidence in the accuracy of retrieved answers. Feeling-of-Knowing occurs when an individual feels that he/she has something in memory that cannot be recalled, but they would recognize it by seeing (Radvansky, 2006). Several studies showed that aging has little or no effect on the resolution of semantic FOKs while it has a significant effect on episodic FOKs (Arbuckle & Cuddy, 1969). This effect differences between semantic and episodic memory might be explain by a lack of recollection during recognition test in old age group (Yonelinas, 2002). In addition, older adults failed to use the contextual information related to

My memory has been fading for many years now. I can't recall what I once could many years ago.

Prior to the early 1970s the prominent idea of how memories were formed and retrieved revolved around the idea of processing memory into specific stores (Francis & Neath, 2014). These memory stores were identified as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. In contrast to this idea, two researchers named Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart proposed an idea linking the type of encoding to retrieval (Goldstein, 2015). This idea is known as the levels of processing theory. According to this theory, memory depends on the depth of processing that a given item is received by an individual (Goldstein, 2015). Craik and Lockhart stressed four points in supporting their theory. First, they argued that memory was the result of a series of analyses, each level of the series forming a deeper level of processing than the preceding level (Francis & Neath, 2014). The shallow levels of processing were believed to hold less importance and are defined as giving little attention to meaning of an item. Examples of which include focusing on how a word sounds or memorizing a phone number by repeating it over and over again (Francis & Neath, 2014) (Goldstein, 2015). The deeper levels processing involve paying close attention to the meaning of an item and relating that meaning to something else, an example of which would be focusing on the meaning of a word rather than just how the word sounds (Francis & Neath, 2014) (Goldstein, 2015). The second point Craik and Lockhart

The purpose of this research is to investigate the effects of frequency and neighbourhood density on access to the mental lexicon. This had been done through a written version of the Gating task using PowerPoint to display the letters. Participants would write on a sheet given to them recording their spontaneous thoughts as to what the word would be. Once the data had been collected it was converted into inferential statistics for analysis. There appeared to be a correlation between amount of guesses and the variables frequency and neighbourhood density. High frequency high neighbourhood density (HFHN) words were more likely to be recognised faster than the low frequency low neighbourhood density (LFLN) words. This study suggests that frequency and neighbourhood density are two considerable factors in word recognition. To further investigate this study, it would benefit researching into different nationalities to find out whether or not this is solely an English language trait or cross-languages.

However, referring to previous studies showing verb retrieval improvements in the presence of pictures (Fink, Martin, Schwartz, Saffran, Myers, 1992), Raymer & Ellsworth (2002) postulated that because the individual’s verb-naming impairment was due to a relatively mild underlying semantic dysfunction initially, verb-naming improved in each of the three conditions perhaps due to the combination of visual, semantic, and phonologic processes activated during the picture-naming (Nickels, 2001) which triggered semantic processing, even when it was not intentionally targeted, at a sufficient level to affect a change for this individual. Further, Raymer & Ellsworth (2002) involved only one participant, thus requiring replication to confirm the results.