ch_01_before_history
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Pennsylvania State University *
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Subject
Anthropology
Date
Dec 6, 2023
Type
Pages
29
Uploaded by BarristerFangHeron21
Traditions &
Encounters
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:03 AM Page 1
I
THE EARLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES,
3500 TO 500 B
.
C
.
E
.
quickly came to dominate political and eco-
nomic afairs in their respective regions. In-
ded, since the apearance of cities, the earth
and its creatures have falen progresively
under the inuence of complex societies or-
g
a
n
i
z
e
d
a
r
o
u
n
d
ci
t
i
e
s
.
T
he term complex society
refers to a form of
l
a
r
g
e
-
s
ca
l
e
s
o
ci
a
l
o
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
t
h
a
t
e
m
e
r
g
e
d
i
n
several parts of the ancient world. Earl
y com-
plex societies al depended on robust agricul-
tural economies in which cultivators produced
more fod than they neded for their subsis-
tence. T
hat agricultural surplus enabled man
y
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
s
t
o
c
o
n
gr
e
g
a
t
e
i
n
u
r
b
a
n
s
e
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
s
,
where they devoted their time and energy to
specialized tasks other than fod production.
Political authorities, go
vernment ofcials, mili-
tary experts, priests, artisans, craftsmen, and
merchants al lived of that surplus agricultural
production. T
hrough their organization of po-
litical, economic, social, and cultural afairs,
complex societies had the capacity to shape
the lives of large populations over extensive
t
e
r
i
t
o
r
i
e
s
.
D
u
r
i
n
g
t
h
e
c
e
n
t
u
r
i
e
s
f
r
o
m
3
50
t
o
50
B
.
C
.
E
.
,
complex societies arose independentl
y in sev-
eral widely scatered regions of the world, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, northern India, China,
Mesoamerica, and the central Andean region of South
America. Most complex societies sprang from smal agri-
cu
l
t
u
r
a
l
c
o
m
u
n
i
t
i
e
s
s
i
t
u
a
t
e
d
e
i
t
h
e
r
i
n
r
i
v
e
r
v
a
l
e
y
s
o
r
n
e
a
r
s
o
u
r
c
e
so
fw
a
t
e
rt
h
a
tcu
l
t
i
v
a
t
o
r
sc
o
u
l
dta
pt
oi
r
i
g
a
t
et
h
e
i
r
F
or thousands of years after the emer-
gence of the human species, human beings lived in tiny comunities with no
permanent home. They formed compact,
mobile societies, each consisting of a few
dozen people, and they traveled regularly
in pursuit of game and edible plants. From
the vantage point of the fast-moving pres-
ent, that long rst stage of human experi-
ence on the earth might sem slow paced
and almost changeles. Y
et inteligence set
human beings apart from the other mem-
bers of the animal kingdom and enabled
human groups to invent tols and tech-
niquesthatenhancedtheirabilitytoe
xploit
the natural environment. Human beings
gradualy emerged as the most dynamic
species of the animal kingdom, and e
v
en in
remote prehistoric times they altered the
f
aceofthearthtosuitheirneds.
Y
et humans earl
y exploitation of the earths
resources was only a prologue to the ex-
traordinary developments that folowed the
introduction of agriculture. About twelve
thousand years ago human groups began to
experiment with agriculture, and it son be-
came clear that cultivation provided a larger and more
r
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
f
o
d
s
u
p
l
y
t
h
a
n
d
i
d
f
o
r
a
gi
n
g
.
G
r
o
u
p
s
t
h
a
t
t
u
r
n
e
d
to agriculture experienced rapid population growth, and
they setled in permanent comunities. T
he worlds rst
cities, which apeared about six thousand years ago,
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 2
cr
o
p
s
.A
le
s
ta
b
l
i
s
h
e
dp
o
l
i
t
i
ca
la
u
t
h
o
r
i
t
i
e
s
,b
u
i
l
t
states with formal go
vernmental institutions,
c
o
l
e
ct
e
d
s
u
r
p
l
u
s
a
gr
i
cu
l
t
u
r
a
l
p
r
o
d
u
ct
i
o
n
i
n
t
h
e
form of taxes or tribute, and distributed it to
t
h
o
s
e
w
h
o
w
o
r
k
e
d
a
ta
s
k
s
o
t
h
e
r
t
h
a
n
a
gr
i
cu
l
-
t
u
r
e
.C
o
m
p
l
e
xs
o
ci
e
t
i
e
st
r
a
d
e
de
n
t
h
u
s
i
a
s
t
i
ca
l
y
with peoples who had aces to scarce re-
sources, and, in an efort to ensure stability
andeconomicproductivityineighboringre-
gions, they often sought to extend their au-
t
h
o
r
i
t
y
t
o
s
u
r
o
u
n
d
i
n
g
t
e
r
i
t
o
r
i
e
s
.
Complex societies generated much more
w
e
a
l
t
h
t
h
a
n
d
i
d
h
u
n
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
g
a
t
h
e
r
i
n
gr
o
u
p
s
orsmalagriculturalcomunities.Becauseof
their high levels of organization, they also
were able to preserve wealth and pas it along to their heirs. Some individuals and families acumulated great personal wealth,
whichenhancedtheirsocialstatus.W
henbe-
queathed to heirs and held within particular
families,thisacumulatedwealthbecamethe
foundation for social distinctions. T
he earl
y
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d
i
f
e
r
e
n
t
k
i
n
d
s
o
f
social distinctions, but al recognized several
clasesofpeople,includingrulingelites,com-
mon people, and slaves. Some societies also
recognized distinct clases of aristocrats,
priests, merchants, artisans, fre peasants, and semi-fre
p
e
a
s
a
n
t
s
.
A
lc
o
m
p
l
e
xs
o
ci
e
t
i
e
sr
e
q
u
i
r
e
dcu
l
t
i
v
a
t
o
r
sa
n
di
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
-
als of lower clases to suport the more privileged mem-
b
e
r
s
o
f
s
o
ci
e
t
y
b
y
p
a
y
i
n
g
ta
x
e
s
o
r
t
r
i
b
u
t
e
(
o
f
t
e
n
i
n
t
h
e
f
o
r
m
of surplus agricultural production) and also by pro
viding
labor and military service. Cultivators often worked not
o
n
l
y
t
h
e
i
r
l
a
n
d
s
b
u
t
a
l
s
o
t
h
o
s
e
b
e
l
o
n
gi
n
g
t
o
t
h
e
p
r
i
v
i
l
e
g
e
d
clases. Individuals from the lower clases made up the
bulk of their societies armies and contributed the labor
f
o
rl
a
r
g
ec
o
n
s
t
r
u
ct
i
o
np
r
o
j
e
ct
s
u
c
ha
sci
t
yw
a
l
s
,i
r
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
and water control systems, roads, temples, palaces, p
yra-
m
i
d
s
,
a
n
d
r
o
y
a
l
t
o
m
b
s
.
T
he earl
y complex societies also created sophisticated
cultural traditions. Most of them either invented or bor-
rowed a system of writing that made it posi-
ble to record information and store it for later
use. They rst used writing to kep political,
administrative, and busines records, but they
son expanded on those utilitarian aplica-
tions and used writing to construct traditions
o
f
l
i
t
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
l
e
a
r
n
i
n
g
,
a
n
d
r
e
ct
i
o
n
.
Cultural traditions tok diferent forms in d
i
f
e
r
e
n
tc
o
m
p
l
e
xs
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
.S
o
m
es
o
ci
e
t
i
e
sd
e
-
voted resources to organized religions that
s
o
u
g
ht
om
e
d
i
a
t
eb
e
t
w
e
nh
u
m
a
nc
o
m
u
n
i
-
t
i
e
s
a
n
d
t
h
e
g
o
d
s
,
w
h
e
r
e
a
s
o
t
h
e
r
s
l
e
f
t
r
e
l
i
gi
o
u
s
o
b
s
e
r
v
a
n
c
e
sl
a
r
g
e
l
yi
nt
h
eh
a
n
d
so
fi
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
f
a
m
i
l
ygr
o
u
p
s
.A
lo
ft
h
e
mp
a
i
dcl
o
s
ea
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
t
o
t
h
e
h
e
a
v
e
n
s
,
h
o
w
e
v
e
r
,
s
i
n
c
e
t
h
e
y
n
e
d
e
d
t
o
gear their agricultural labors to the changing
s
e
a
s
o
n
s
.
A
l
t
h
e
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
o
r
g
a
n
i
z
e
d
s
y
s
t
e
m
s
o
f
f
o
r
m
a
l
e
d
u
ca
t
i
o
n
t
h
a
t
i
n
t
r
o
d
u
c
e
d
i
n
t
e
l
e
ct
u
a
l
e
l
i
t
e
s
t
o
s
k
i
l
s
s
u
c
h
a
s
w
r
i
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
a
s
t
r
o
n
o
m
i
ca
l
observation demed necesary for their soci-
e
t
i
e
s
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
.
I
n
m
a
n
y
ca
s
e
s
r
e
ct
i
v
e
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
-
a
l
s
a
l
s
o
p
r
o
d
u
c
e
d
w
o
r
k
s
t
h
a
t
e
x
p
l
o
r
e
d
t
h
e
n
a
t
u
r
e
of humanity and the relationships among h
u
-
m
a
n
b
e
i
n
g
s
,
t
h
e
w
o
r
l
d
,
a
n
d
t
h
e
g
o
d
s
.
S
o
m
e
of
t
h
o
s
e
w
o
r
k
s
i
n
s
p
i
r
e
d
r
e
l
i
g
i
o
u
s
a
n
d
p
h
i
l
o
s
o
p
h
i
c
a
l
t
r
a
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
f
o
r
t
w
o
m
i
l
e
n
i
a
o
r
m
o
r
e
.
Complexsocietywasnotheonl
yformofsocialorga-
nization that earl
y human groups constructed, but it was
an unusual
y important and inuential type of society
.
Complexsocietiesproducedmuchmorewealthandhar-
nesedhumanresourcesonamuchlargerscalethandid
b
a
n
d
s
o
f
h
u
n
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
g
a
t
h
e
r
i
n
g
p
e
o
p
l
e
s
,
s
m
a
l
a
gr
i
cu
l
t
u
r
a
l
comunities, or nomadic groups that herded domesti-
ca
t
e
d
a
n
i
m
a
l
s
.
A
s
a
r
e
s
u
l
t
,
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
d
e
p
l
o
y
e
d
t
h
e
i
r
p
o
w
e
r
,p
u
r
s
u
e
dt
h
e
i
ri
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
s
,a
n
dp
r
o
m
o
t
e
dt
h
e
i
rv
a
l
u
e
s
o
ver much larger regions than did smaler societies. In-
ded, most of the worlds peoples have led their lives
u
n
d
e
r
t
h
e
i
n
u
e
n
c
e
o
f
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
.
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 3
1
Before History
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 4
T
hr
oughout the e
v
ening
of 30 No
vember 1
9
7
4, a tape player in an Ethiopian desert blared
the Beatles song L
ucy in the Sky with Diamonds at top volume. T
he site was an archaeo-
logical camp at Hadar, a remote spot about 320 kilometers (20 miles) northeast of Adis
A
b
a
b
a
.
T
h
e
m
u
s
i
c
h
e
l
p
e
d
f
u
e
l
a
s
p
i
r
i
t
e
d
c
e
l
e
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
:
e
a
r
l
i
e
r
i
n
t
h
e
d
a
y
,
a
r
c
h
a
e
o
l
o
gi
s
t
s
h
a
d
d
i
s
-
covered the skeleton of a woman who died 3.2 milion years ago. Scholars refer to this
womans skeleton as AL 28-1
, but the woman herself has become by far the worlds best-
k
n
o
w
n
p
r
e
h
i
s
t
o
r
i
c
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
u
n
d
e
r
t
h
e
n
a
m
e
L
u
cy
.
At the time of her death, from unknown causes, L
ucy was age twenty-ve to thirty
. She
stod just o
ver 1 meter (about 3.5 fet) tal and probabl
y weighed about 25 kilograms (5
pounds). After she died, sand and mud co
vered L
ucys bod
y, hardened gradual
y into rock,
a
n
d
e
n
t
o
m
b
e
d
h
e
r
e
m
a
i
n
s
.
B
y
1
9
7
4
,
h
o
w
e
v
e
r
,
r
a
i
n
w
a
t
e
r
s
h
a
d
e
r
o
d
e
d
t
h
e
r
o
c
k
a
n
d
e
x
p
o
s
e
d
L
ucys fosilized skeleton. T
he archaeological team working at Hadar eventual
y found 40
percent of L
ucys bones, which together form one of the most complete and best-preserved
skeletons of an
y earl
y human ancestor
. L
ater searches at Hadar turned up bones belonging
t
o
p
e
r
h
a
p
s
a
s
m
a
n
y
a
s
i
x
t
y
-
v
e
a
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
s
,
a
l
t
h
o
u
g
h
n
o
t
h
e
r
c
o
l
e
ct
i
o
n
o
f
bo
n
e
s
f
r
o
m
H
a
d
a
r
i
v
a
l
s
L
u
cy
s
k
e
l
e
t
o
n
f
o
r
c
o
m
p
l
e
t
e
n
e
s
.
A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s
o
f
L
u
cy
s
k
e
l
e
t
o
n
a
n
d
o
t
h
e
r
bo
n
e
s
f
o
u
n
d
a
t
H
a
d
a
r
d
e
m
o
n
s
t
r
a
t
e
s
t
h
a
t
h
e
a
r
l
i
e
s
t
ancestors of modern human beings walked upright on two fet. Erect walking is crucial for
h
u
m
a
nb
e
i
n
g
sb
e
ca
u
s
ei
tf
r
e
st
h
e
i
ra
r
m
sa
n
dh
a
n
d
sf
o
ro
t
h
e
rta
s
k
s
.L
u
cya
n
dh
e
rc
o
n
t
e
m
p
o
-
r
a
r
i
e
s
d
i
d
n
o
t
p
o
s
e
s
l
a
r
g
e
o
r
w
e
l
-
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d
b
r
a
i
n
s
L
u
cy
s
s
k
u
l
w
a
s
a
bo
u
t
t
h
e
s
i
z
e
o
f
a
s
m
a
l
grapefruitbut unlike the neighboring apes, which used their forelimbs for locomotion, L
ucy
a
n
dh
e
rc
o
m
p
a
n
i
o
n
sc
o
u
l
dca
r
yo
b
j
e
ct
sw
i
t
ht
h
e
i
ra
r
m
sa
n
dm
a
n
i
p
u
l
a
t
et
o
l
sw
i
t
ht
h
e
i
rd
e
x
-
terous hands. T
hose abilities enabled L
ucy and her companions to survive beter than man
y
other species. As the brains of our human ancestors grew larger and more sophisticateda
proces that ocured o
ver a period of several milion yearshuman beings learned to take
even beter advantage of their arms and hands and established ourishing comunities
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
o
u
t
h
e
w
o
r
l
d
.
A
c
o
r
d
i
n
g
t
o
g
e
o
l
o
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years ago, short, hairy, monkeylike animals began to populate tropical regions of the world.
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O P P O S I T E
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A quartet of horses depicted about thirty thousand years ago in a painting from the Chauvet cave in southern France.
5
The Evolution of H
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Paleolithic Society
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The Neolithic Era and the Transition to Agriculture
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ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 5
6
P A R T
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this world, and o
ver time they demonstrated remarkable ingenuity in devising ways to take
a
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animal has exploited the natural environment so thoroughl
y that the earth has undergone i
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-
tory of human societies, their origins, development, and interactions. In conventional termi-
nology, prehistory
refers to the period before writing, and history
refers to the era after the
invention of writing enabled human comunities to record and store information. It is cer-
ta
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understand past ages, but recent research by archaeologists and evolutionary biologists has
brightly iluminated the physical and social development of early human beings. It is now
clear that long before the invention of writing, human beings made a place for their species
in the natural world and laid the social, economic, and cultural foundations on which their
s
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ancestors led. Their work has done much to clarify the relationship betwen human
beings and other animal species. On one hand, researchers have shown that human
beings share some remarkable similarities with the large apes. This point is true not
only of external features, such as physical form, but also of the basic elements of ge-
n
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to observe a diference of only 1.6 percent betwen the DNA of human beings and
c
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.B
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Ontheotherhand,humanbeingsclearlystandoutasthemostdistinctiveofthe
primatespecies.Smaldiferencesingeneticmakeupandbodychemistryhaveledto
enormousdiferencesinlevelsofinteligenceandabilitytoexercisecontroloverthe
n
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geneticaly to their natural environment, human beings altered the natural environ-
mentosuitheirnedsandesiresaprocesthatbeganinremoteprehistoryand
continuesinthepresentday
.Overthelongterm,to,inteligencendowedhumans
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years.TheOlduvaiGor
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ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 6
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