SWP 638 NOTES

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Anthropology

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Apr 3, 2024

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SWP 638 NOTES WEEK ONE- ● As discussed by Denzin and Lincoln (2000), qualitative research in North America has had a long history known as the eight moments of qualitative research. ○ Traditional Period: Early 1900s to World War II ■ This was the period when anthropological, ethnographic accounts were written by colonizers about natives living in their colonies. These accounts provided a detailed account of native culture as though it was stationary and of the Other (natives) as objects. ○ Modernist Phase: Postwar years to the 1970s ■ This phase was marked by post-positivism, a paradigm that signaled the importance of conducting qualitative research with the same rigour as quantitative research. In other words, it was believed that qualitative methodology should have a series of systematic steps and should be able to generalize findings as quantitative research. Many approaches of qualitative inquiry, such as grounded theory and phenomenology, developed during this phase. ○ Blurred Genres: 1970 to 1986 ■ The third moment was marked by a full-fledged development of different approaches of inquiry, methods of data collection and analysis of qualitative data. One of the critical developments during this phase was the realization among scholars that all anthropological writings were interpretations of interpretations, recognition that the cultural representations that were made in earlier writings were actually a researcher’s interpretations. This realization led to the development of the next phase ○ Crisis of Representation: Mid-1980s ■ The fourth moment, the Crisis of Representation, started from mid 1980s onwards when there was an erosion of old norms governing anthropological writings. Three critical developments occurred during this phase: representation, legitimation and praxis. ■ Representation: There was a realization that research accounts are just one way of representing reality and that a researcher’s representations are influenced by her/ his social location. Based on this reflexivity, an examination of issues of race, gender and class appeared in research and writings. ■ Legitimation: Scholars also found traditional criteria for evaluating qualitative research problematic. They questioned old criteria such as

validity, generalizability and reliability as criteria of assessing qualitative research. ■ Praxis: For the first time, questions such as the possibility of research to effect change were raised. With this the concept of praxis, action- reflection-action gained importance. ○ Postmodern Period of Experimental Ethnographic Writings: Mid-1990s onwards ■ This phase was marked by acceptance of various forms of knowledge from previously marginalized groups as valid knowledge. There was also a shift from grand narratives to local, specific theories impacting the purpose of research. Additionally, participatory and action oriented research became more prevalent. ○ Post-Experimental Inquiry: 1995 to 2000 ■ The sixth moment saw the emergence of novel/creative forms of expressing lived experiences. These forms included literary, poetic, autobiographical, multivoiced, visual, performative and co-constructed representations and gained credibility as valid research. ○ Methodologically Contested Period: 2000 to 2004 ■ During the seventh moment, there emerged considerable disagreement about how qualitative research should be conducted and the direction it should be taking. This period also saw the emergence of evidence-based research as the gold standard in research and simultaneously the rise of Indigenous social sciences and decolonization of the Western academy. ○ Traditional Period: Early 1900s to World War II ■ This was the period when anthropological, ethnographic accounts were written by colonizers about natives living in their colonies. These accounts provided a detailed account of native culture as though it was stationary and of the Other (natives) as objects. Tensions within the Qualitative Research Camp …there are four camps that currently exist in qualitative research (Padgett, 2008): ● Camp against positivism; ● constructivism; ● research focused on social justice and inequalities and ● pragmatism (p. 7). Evidence-Based Research

Gray, Haynes and Richardson (1996), “ Evidence-based practice is the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individuals” (p.71). Rationale for Using EBR The following are some of the rationale for using EBR: ● Reduce wide variations in individual’s practices ● Eliminate worst practices ● Enhance best practices so that it is possible to standardize and maximize good practice. As per this rationale, standardization would reduce cost and improve quality. Evidence Within EBR 1. Meta analysis, systematic reviews and clinical guidelines 2. Randomized controlled trial and quasi-experimental studies 3. Case control studies, cohort studies, pre-experimental group studies 4. Surveys 5. Qualitative studies 6. Opinion of respected authorities (not provided in Figure 1.1, but comes only after all of the above) ● EBR is challenged for privileging certain methods, such as randomized control trials (RCT) (discussed in quantitative research) and experimental studies, and attributing these methods as scientific; whereas, qualitative methodology of research ranks low on the hierarchy of evidence. Concept of Qualitative Research

● “… Qualitative research ... involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world…. It involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials … that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives. Qualitative researchers deploy a wide range of interconnected practices hoping to get a better understanding of the subject at hand” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). ● qualitative research is about gathering individual perspectives on various phenomena. The interviews are conducted in their natural surroundings and the findings that researchers present are understood as an interpretation, based in researcher’s subject position and experiences. Markers of Qualitative Research ● A qualitative researcher skillfully pieces together various approaches of inquiry, various theoretical or conceptual frameworks, political perspectives and methods. ● In qualitative research, multiple methods (triangulation) are not used as a tool of validation, but as an alternative. Other markers of qualitative research: ● Insider perspectives, rather than outsider ● Person centred, rather than variable centred ● Contextual, rather than decontextual ● Depth, rather than breadth Indigenous Approaches to Inquiry Indigenous approaches tend to have the following characteristics: ● They are holistic: Spirit, Heart, Mind and Body ● They are multi-perspective/polycentric/pluralistic, like petals ● They are eclectic ● They are flexible Spirit: Protocols, Ceremony and Honour ● Spirituality is central in Indigenous methodologies. According to Raven, spiritual paradigm and sacred epistemology are: ● Used to incorporate prayer, ceremony, dreams and cultural protocols ● Guided by dreams, visions, ceremonies and prayers. Ceremonies provide a channel to heal, cleanse, seek knowledge and gain insight to make decisions This establishes a respectful relationship with Spirit. The methodology also is grounded in reciprocity and offering of gifts. Heart: Relationships, Reciprocity and Community

Indigenous methodologies emphasize relationship for reconnecting, remembering, reclaiming. Strategies focus on creating a positive research setting by: ● Choosing a good location ● Conducting prior visits, spending time and building a trustful relationship with participants ● Planning community gatherings and meetings that reflect friendship ● Sharing food, ceremonies ● Engaging in conversations about the future, families, communities and children ● Not recording events Mind: Respecting Indigenous Knowledge This is demonstrated by: ● Respecting and reclaiming Indigenous knowledge ● Acknowledging the knowledge of Elders, Indigenous scholars, community members; ● Creating visibility for people who share their knowledge in the research document. In doing so, the stance against colonialism is demonstrated. This strategy asserts for the genealogy of Indigenous knowledge, advancing Indigenous perspectives, and privileging Indigenous scholars in their research. Body: Doing, Working and Creating Attention is paid to this dimension by: ● Becoming involved; ● Embodying the search by participating, experiencing and reflecting on activities that have spiritual, emotional, physical and mental dimensions and ● Focusing on undertaking walks, visiting Elders, attending ceremonies and prayers, and working with a core group and allies. Indigenous methodologies centre around the following three values: ● Incorporating teachings from family, culture and traditional teachers ● Family and community participation ● Community-based protocols that engage various members/subgroups/Elders of the community through consultations/meetings WEEK TWO- Narrative Inquiry ● Narrative inquiry is both an approach to inquiry as well as a technique of data analysis. Narrative inquiry is conducted when the focus of a researcher is on highlighting factors that have shaped the life and/or identity of individuals. In doing so, narrative inquiry accomplishes its purpose of personal and/or social change. ● Narrative inquiry is grounded in the constructivist orientation which believes humans construct meaning and knowledge from their own experience. Hence, there is no single

reality, and the interpretation of a given reality could differ from one person to another based on their varying experiences. In doing so, it creates space for participants to construct their narrative based on their experience. ● As discussed by Padgett, there are different types of narratives. A researcher selects the type of inquiry based on the purpose that the researcher wants to accomplish through the research. There are two ways in which narrative analysis is conducted: ● By re-storying the narrative chronologically and by highlighting milestones that are relevant in the context of the narrative ● By doing thematic analysis (for further reading refer Frazer, 2004). Phenomenology ● Phenomenology is generally used when a researcher wants to gain insight into the most critical factors underlying the lived experience of individuals experiencing a phenomenon, for example, the phenomenon of homelessness. ● phenomenology is grounded in postpositivism ● Scholars who believe in constructionism have developed interpretive phenomenology. This phenomenology has moved away from its earlier postpositivist orientation. The underlying assumption made in this type of phenomenology is that human realities are always impacted by the world within which participants live. The research question in phenomenology focuses on two aspects: 1. Obaining a textural description of the phenomenon: Asking questions such as “What have you experienced about the phenomenon?”, “Do you have a mental image of …?” 2. Obtaining a structural description of the phenomenon: Asking questions such as “What context or situation has influenced your experience?”, “How would you describe the situation?”, “What feelings come to your mind?”, “What meaning does it have in your life?” ● Data analysis in phenomenology is done thematically by identifying and grouping similar ideas into themes and presenting them in ways that convey the essence of the textural and structural description of the phenomenon. Grounded Theory There are two types of grounded theories: 1. Systematic grounded theory developed by Glaser and Strauss (1968) 2. Constructivist grounded theory developed by Charmaz (2006) ● The systematic grounded theory is postpositivist in its orientation. ○ Namely to develop a substantive theory related to the topic that is being researched. ○ Grounded theory also prescribes a set procedure for data collection and analysis akin to quantitative research orientation, which makes it postpositivist. Critical features of Charmaz’s and Bryant’s constructivist grounded theory are based in the importance of research process as demonstrated through:

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