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NATURAL LAW ● See the passing of the first millennium the rise of european universities. Systematic thought was becoming more and more important ● Theology’s approach becomes one of integrating, summarising and articulating its subjects of study Era of Summas ● Summas are summary treatises that produced great writings in systematic theology. Summas were often attempts to proclaim the gospel in a philosophically consistent and logically compelling manner ● Two prominent thinkers who contributed to this development were saint bonaventure and thomas aquinas Who was bonaventure? ● Bonaventure was an italian franciscan friar (1217-1274 ce) who taught theology at the university of paris. He attempted, in his theology, to integrate faith and reason, and was influenced by the platonic tradition, which had prevailed in the centuries before. It is from this perspective that Bonaventure developed a synthesis of Christian theology and morality Synthesising theology and morality ● Central characteristic of people was their will, their power to decide and act ● The intellect, while important, was in the order of means, a tool to be used for action ● Love was the centre of the moral life. Knowledge and practical deeds were secondary ● The role of theology is to make intelligible what Scripture teaches about Christ and moral life Who was thomas aquinas? ● (1225-1274) was an italian dominican priest of the roman catholic church and member of the domincan religious order. His work is unparalleled in terms of its influence in the church ● At the time of aquinas, the writings of aristotle were being rediscovered and aquinas drew on aristotle for his articulation of christian theology. For aquinas (following aristotle) humans are intellectual beings or rational animals. Their highest achievement is contemplation An interest in ethical quesitons ● One seciton of aquinas’ summa theologiae titled pars secunda was a treatise on moral theology. It dealt first with general concepts and then with specific ethical topics. The important point is that aquina incorporated these ethical discussions into his overall synthesis of christian theology Key points from aquinas in relation to ethics ● Aquinas was concerned with protecting the notion of a human agent who is the responsible author of his or her own actions ● Human beings are not just “spectators” of the world-orde rin which everything that happens is caused by god’s will. Rather, human beings are actors in the world. God has given human beings the capacity to be reasonable and responsible agents Aristotle’s influence on aquinas Briefly, aristotle:

● rejected Plato's explanation of reality as involving unchanging Forms. ● was concerned with the phenomenal world, that is, the world that can be known empirically. ● was concerned to differentiate reality and understand how it grows, develops and changes. For Aristotle, the good consists in the realization of the ends that are potential in one's nature. (Think of an acorn. The 'end' that is potential in an acorn's 'nature' is an oak tree.) Thomas Aquinas was hugely influenced by Aristotle's notion of the good. We see this influence in Aquinas' ethics, which is described as teleological. For Aquinas , a good life under the control of the right reason consists of the best use of: ■ one's rational powers (intellect and will) ■ one's lower capacities (appetites and bodily activities) Teleological and deontological Definitions What is teleology? ● Derived from greek word telos meaning ‘end’, ‘purpose’ or ‘goal’ and logos meaning ‘the study of’. Of, pertaining to, or involving teleology; relating to ends or final causes; dealing with design or purpose, esp. In natural phenomena ● Theory of ethics called teleological ethics. The focus here is on the ‘end’ or ‘consequences’ of an act. An example of this type of ethics, is utiliatiranism, which asserts that the criterion of right and wrong actions is whether they maximise welfare, that is, the greatest good for the greater number What is deontology? ● Deontology comes from the greek word deon meaning ‘law’ or ‘duty’ and logos meaning ‘the study of’. The focus in deontological ethics is the ‘law’, the ‘rule’ or the ‘duty’, which takes priority over the results of an action Relation to ends and means ● Ends: ethic of consequences - (teology) ○ Focus = the results of a situation ● Means: ethic of principle (deontology) ○ Focus = the principles or rules that guide our actions Christians must act in an imperfect and sinful world in which, not infrequently, the possibilities of an action or inaction all seem, in different ways, morally questionable. Harmless activity may not be harmless ● Some insists: “the higher and more noble an end is, the more it justifies any means used in achieving it” ● Others insist: “in moral matters, the means affects the end: ie. the means are not morally indifferent, and a sharp distinction between means and ends is never possible Example: greenpeace ● Members of greenpeace, an intl organisation that works for environmental conservation and the preservation of endangered species, often break the law in their effort to get publicity about what they think is right and wrong. For these members of greenpeace, the end (raising awareness of and preventing activities that are harming the environment or endangering species) justifies the means (breaking the law, damaging property, endangering their own lives and the lives of others). The head of greenpeace, kumi naidoo, states that it is justifiable to break the law inert people to the threat of climate change Example: my brother’s keeper

● A deontologist will say that what i did was wrong because i lied and lying is always wrong no matter what the circumstances. So, for the deontologist, the end (keeping my brother safe) never justifies the means (lying) ● A teleologist would say that my lying was justified because it protects my brother from harm. So for the teleologist, the end (protecitng my brother from harm) can sometimes justify the means (lying) The basis of natural law The basic principle of natural law is: good should be sought after and done, evil avoided. This is known through an intellectual intuition of practical precepts of moral behaviour. ● Natural Law ○ Constitutes an objective set of principles that can be seen as true by the natural light of reason. The claim of the natural law tradition is that moral knowledge is accessible not just to believers but to anyone who is willing to reflect critically on human experience. Natural law assumes that human beings are essentially good and have a capacity to know and choose what is right. ● The Biblical Basis of Natural Law ○ The parables of Jesus use ordinary human experiences to highlight basic human values. Paul, in particular, was explicit in his reference to 'nature' as a source of moral knowledge for those who did not have access to the revelation of the God of Israel. Critical reflection on experience is sufficient for moral enlightenment. (Romans 1:20) Other sources of natural law ● Greek Philosophy ○ However, the natural law tradition in Christian ethics is due more to Greek philosophy than scriptures. The key Greek philosopher was Aristotle who influenced Aquinas in particular. ○ For Aristotle, human nature is rational, therefore, morally good actions are those that are directed (through reason) toward the full actualization of human potential. While we all have natural capacities for virtue (or vice), these capacities must be developed as habits through practice. ○ In the same way that we become better athletes or musicians through practice, we become virtuous by doing virtuous things. We begin by doing objectively virtuous acts because they are taught to us or commanded of us. We are not yet interiorly motivated or do not yet use our reason to choose the "good". Eventually, through education and habit, virtuous actions come from our own reasoning and intention. ● Romans and the ‘law’ of the natural order ○ Another important source of natural law were the Romans who emphasized the 'law' of the natural order. Cicero (d. 43 b.c.e.) wrote of "natural law as the innate power of reason to direct action. To live according to the law given in

nature is to live according to what reason commands." ● “Order of nature” and “order of reason” ○ By the time of the Middle Ages and Aquinas, two strains of interpretation of natural law prevailed. One was the "order of nature" which focused on the physical and biological structures given in nature as a source of morality. The second, the "order of reason" focused on the human capacity to discover in experience what promotes human flourishing and well-being. Aquinas accepted both strains. Aquinas’ formulation of natural law Connecting natural law with practical reason and eternal law Overview: ● Aquinas links natural law both with practical reason (of which humans are capable) and with eternal law, which posits that god is ultimately the source of moral value and moral obligation. Everything participates in god’s eternal law according to its nature. So animals participate by instinct and humans participate through reason The work of reason: ● For aquinas, even though the immediate source of moral knowing is human reason, god’s eternal law is the underlying source ● The work of reason is to discover what being human means. Reason does this by reflecting on the total human experience, not merely biological ● Reason “entails the totality of the human tendency to want to know the whole of reality and come to truth” Our moral duties ● Our moral duties are known through our best practical judgement on what is required for any particular personal problem ● His understanding of natural law: ○ Moral duties can be ascertained by reflection on human nature ○ God’s plan for us is built into our nature by god’s creation of us ○ Based on roman’s 2:14-16 - a law written in our hearts Reflection on human nature ● By using our reason to reflect on our human nature, we can discover both: ○ “Specific” ends ■ The specific ends toward which we tend ■ An example of a specific end is learning to play a musical instrument. The actual effort we undergo to learn to plan a musical instrument aims at the specific end of playing the instrument ○ “General” ends ■ The general end for which god created us ■ An example of a general end is “happiness” toward which all human beings are oriented. We all seek happiness as a “general end” of our acts. So, learning to play a musical instrument is the specific end and the happiness we experience doing this is the general end To sum up ● For aquinas, this understanding of god’s plan for us, built into our nature by god’s ct of creation is natural law ● For aquinas, special revelation is not necessary for moral knowledge

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