Crisis Intervention

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Managing an Active Shooter Incident 1 Crisis Intervention: Managing an Active Shooter Incident Tyler J. Gregory Helms School of Government, Liberty University October 9, 2023 Author Note Tyler J. Gregory I have no known conflict of interest to disclose. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tyler J Gregory. Email: Tgregory29@liberty.edu

Managing an Active Shooter Incident 2 Abstract The first responder community is faced with some of the most dangerous situations the emergency management world could think of. While these men and women have agreed to do their jobs thoroughly and with good intent, it doesn’t necessarily mean they are prepared for all threats and hazards that are thrown at them. Particularly, active shooter incidents are one of the more common incidents that continue to be an alarming test for law enforcement and medical personnel. Expecting an officer to enter a building alone, knowing that there is a mass murderer on the other side, is asking a lot. However, what if that officer was familiar with the incident? Suddenly, the outlook on an expectation such as that doesn’t seem awful because this officer is prepared for what the community is asking of them. In addition to training, educating the first responder community on the best practices during an active shooter incident only enforces a second-hand nature feel when that incident actually does break ground. Throughout this article, the author will introduce the history of active shooter incidents in the United States of America and how this history has changed the social state of Americans. Additionally, the article will cover the intentions of the article and what one should accomplish by thoroughly reading it. The article also goes into great detail about the crisis intervention continuum and how this methodology of managing an active shooter incident can provide a substantial outline that gives first responder personnel an idea of their roles during an incident. Lastly, the article will address the changes in law enforcement psychic and the most anticipated changes in their training and academies. Hypothetically, with proper implementation of the information outlined in this article, first responders will feel more confident in their ability to respond to an active shooter incident. Keywords: Active Shooter; Response; Prevention; Crisis; Intervention Crisis Intervention: Managing an Active Shooter Incident

Managing an Active Shooter Incident 3 Crisis intervention is used every single day by emergency service professionals and although some incidents involve a more physiological variable, training and preparedness make for a successful outcome...most of the time. The dissolution of the 19 th and the arrival of the 20 th century brought an incident that would only become kryptonite for security in the United States of America. As statistics provide us, there have been nearly 645 active shooters on school campuses since the first active shooter incident recorded in 1764, known as the Pontiac Rebellion School Massacre (Paolini, 2015) (Martaindale & Blair, 2019). While this number only represents the amount of recorded active shooters in a school setting, it should come as no alarm that crisis intervention belongs in more than only a school. By utilizing the crisis intervention continuum model provided by William Harmening, “...we are referring to the process of returning individuals, entities, and systems affected by crisis to a state of equilibrium.” (Harmening, p.13, 2014). However, the question still rests unanswered: why has the number of active shooters continued to rise despite the advancements in technology and first responder capabilities? The only answer to this question is that there are obvious gaps in the continuum, allowing for active shooter incidents to occur and create havoc in the surrounding community. This paper will analyze the use of the crisis intervention continuum to manage and deter active shooter incidents. Throughout the analysis, the paper will cover the history of active shooter incidents as well as all steps in the continuum including 1) Response; 2) Containment; an emphasis placed on 3) De-escalation; 4) Remediation; and 5) Prevention. The paper will offer research-based insight into the recommended course of action for improving crisis intervention operations regarding active shooter incidents. With the successful implementation of the recommended course of action, statistics will show higher levels of confidence in officers when placed into an active shooter scenario.

Managing an Active Shooter Incident 4 History of Active Shooter Incidents The idea of committing massacres with firearms was an extremely difficult concept to grasp for most of the world even as the 18 th century ended and the problems of unjustified killings were on the rise. The first massacre committed with a firearm which is better known as an “active shooter” today, was in 1764 and is known as the Pontiac Rebellion School Massacre (Paolini, 2015). This massacre was as alarming as any massacre is, however, it was the first of its kind, and the reaction to an incident such as this was never imagined. Following the 1700’s, active shooter incidents were not the focus much like they were after the 1764 massacre. According to records, it wouldn’t be until 127 years later that the United States would experience its next active shooter incident in 1891 (Holmes & Holmes, 2012). 1891 is responsible for not one, but two active shooter incidents that would begin a trend that changes social norms and the way the one sees the world. For the next 100 years, the United States would fall victim to 16 more active shooter incidents, creating a new fear for the public and a serious threat for the United States homeland security. While the 16 incidents made a significant difference in how the world views domestic terrorism and the rising threat of gun violence, nothing made as much of an impact as the 1999 Columbine school shooting in Littleton Colorado (Hammack, 2016). The Columbine school massacre shook the nation because it was the first time that the public witnessed kids killing other kids, and killing friends and educators (fbi.gov, 2019). Additionally, this attack lasted 49 minutes, placing emphasis on the under-preparedness that was exhibited by the police departments that day. Following the Columbine massacre, it became apparent that law enforcement officers did in fact have a crucial role in active shooter incidents and that relying solely on the response of the Special Weapons and Tactics unit would not suffice in a time- sensitive incident such as this. As the 21 st century was underway, active shooter incidents became

Managing an Active Shooter Incident 5 more and more common, occurring often enough to shape social constructs amongst many professions and locations. Since the Columbine massacre in 1999, there has been an attempt to copycat that incident more than 80 different times, making this more than an 800% increase in active shooter incidents from the 20 th to the 21 st century. The increase in active shooter incidents has been largely blamed on gun control, failure to be inclusive, and poor preparedness within the school systems. However, experts in the emergency management and first responder professions identified that threats are evolving, requiring defenses to evolve as well. Why this Article is Necessary Commemorating the active shooter incidents that have happened throughout history is as critically important as preparing for the attacks that have not occurred yet. One of the more overlooked areas of managing an active shooter incident is the methods and practices that are utilized by the first responders during the initial start of the incident. For decades, law enforcement officers were never expected to take the initiative when an active shooter threat broke ground. Due to accountability expectations in the 21 st century, law enforcement officers must acknowledge the risks they are taking when they accept the position, creating an emphasis on the question of whether they are receiving adequate training regarding active shooter incidents. This article is intended to give a research-based baseline of the crisis intervention continuum, providing professionals with a more in-depth understanding of how the continuum can play a critical role in managing active shooter incidents. Theoretically, if the crisis intervention continuum becomes a widely accepted and instructed concept, specific locations can see beneficial effects to not only the rate in which an active shooter incident occurs, but first responders within that participating community should feel more confident in their ability to effectively respond to and manage an active shooter incident.

Managing an Active Shooter Incident 6 The Crisis Intervention Continuum The crisis intervention continuum exists in many fields and provides an outline for crisis intervention practices and dealing with threats and hazards varying in severity and size. In emergency management, professionals have the common goal to prevent, prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters and incidents. When emergency managers operate in blue skies, they are operating under the prevention, mitigation, and preparedness phases. When they operate in and after a disaster, they are working in the response and recovery phases. While the crisis intervention continuum does not include the same phases, it does include response, containment, de-escalation, remediation, and prevention (Harmening, 2013). These steps or phases within the crisis intervention continuum provide a “step-by-step” guide to managing an incident. Response When an incident breaks ground, the initial reaction is panic, call first responders, and fight, flight, or freeze. Just because a police officer has been through six months of training, does not exclude him from sharing these very same feelings when responding to an active shooter incident. While training will assist in the normalization of these feelings and the confidence in response operations, that particular area will be addressed later in the article. However, identifying that training and repetition is necessary to become more comfortable when an incident does occur, is important and shows the agreement that there is not enough training and repetition of response activities. Additionally, it is equally important for all first responders, security personnel, and officers to have a thorough understanding of what is expected of them. As mentioned by the International Association of Chiefs of Police, in an article titled “Active Shooters”, it is noted that even unarmed officers can play a critical role in the response to an active shooter incident (theiacp.org, 2018). During the response to an active shooter call, it is

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