eche2180 exam notes

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Eche2180 Exam notes – Breeana 47212152 Sibling Relationships Why are they important? - Over 90% of children in Australia have a sibling - They help aid development- particularly social and emotional - Important and key relationship which extends through the lifespan - They are prevalent, important for development, complex and diverse Characteristics of sibling relationships - Multifaceted - Longevity – typically exist from childhood into late adulthood and are enduring through the lifespan - Emotion- Facilitate and allow for an uninhibited expression of emotion -can be both positive and negative- emotions are expressed freely and strongly - Intimacy - most children spend more time in their interactions with their siblings that their parents – considerable understanding of the other sibling = the power and ability to be a great source of support or annoyance - Range of individual differences – evident from early childhood to adolescence- different sibling groups behave differently, there are individual differences, some siblings frequently display different behaviours (prosocial and antisocial) Similarities and differences in siblings across cultures Positive sibling relationships Negative sibling relationships -Better social understanding -Perspective taking skills -Empathy toward others’ distress -Strategies for regulating emotions -Promotes cooperative and pretend play is associated with enhanced social skills with peers -Increases ability to resolve conflicts in a constructive manner -Sibling relationships in 3-6-year-old children characterised by more negative and less positive interactions have been related to externalising behaviour problems -Destructive sibling conflict has also been associated with poor social functioning and internalising problems in children and adolescents -High levels of negative affect between siblings was associated with internalising problems 1 year later among a sample of early adolescents (11-12 yrs) -Sibling aggression = aggressive behaviour [one of few areas where causality shown] Siblings compared to only children - “exhibit better social and interpersonal skills, on average, than children without siblings” - having three or more siblings might have a negative impact on the development of social skills - more parent-supervised sibling interactions in smaller families, thus the interactions, might degenerate less often into conflict - sibling relationships between full siblings are more beneficial, in terms of developing emotion regulation - Only children more creative than children with siblings Sibling relationships vs Peer relationships - peer relationships are characterised by: reciprocity, commitment of trust, commitment of support, Sibling research Family constellation variables - gender - birth order - number of siblings - distance in age between siblings - the timing of each sibling’s birth in family history - length of the sibling relationship - child’s characteristics – temperament - parents ‘programme’ for the child - parental attitudes and biases based on gender etc. - child’s sibling position in relation to the parent Siblings’ and Parents’ Relationships -Parent differential treatment -> Siblings treated differently, Both parents not consistent in approach toward child, Parenting changes over time -Parent differential treatment is associated with - > -> externalising behaviours – angry, aggressive, egotistical, oppositional, more hostile and conflicted sibling relationships in middle childhood, poorer adjustment generally, disfavoured children worse off

Eche2180 Exam notes – Breeana 47212152 - Sibling relos but not usually peer relos can involve: rivalry for parental love and attention, resentment about differential treatment, hostility. Memory Why do we need to know about memory? - one type of memory – working memory is classified as an executive function (EF)

Eche2180 Exam notes – Breeana 47212152 - Memory and EFs are given special attention because they are very strong predictors of school performance in modern Western classrooms Basic memory terms -Association: Establishing connections between stimuli/events -Storage: process by which material is held in memory over time -Explicit Memory: when material is consciously retrieved from LTM -Retrieval: process by which material stored in memory is recovered -Recall: remembering in the absence of the to-be-remembered stimulus -Recognition: remembering in the presence of the to-be-remembered stimulus -Encoding: Identification of important features and use of these features to form an internal representation. - Two major types of representations – gist & verbatim. Children are more likely to use verbatim representations than adults. -Adults will select between gist and verbatim depending on the task e.g. remember a famous saying (verbatim) remember a 250 page novel (gist). -Short-term memory / working memory: Information held for only a few seconds unless there is use of a strategy, such as rehearsal, to retain the information (distinction between STM & WM to be discussed later). -Implicit Memory: when something is remembered without being consciously aware that it is being recalled. Many aspects of procedural knowledge involve implicit memory, e.g. brushing your teeth, sitting on a chair. Long term memory Memory Strategies - Procedural knowledge: knowledge about how to do things -Declarative knowledge: knowledge about facts (nonprocedural), concepts, associations between concepts, schemes and scripts. ->Episodic memory: recollection of previous experience ->semantic- fact, concept, general knowledge -Scripts: Developed by individuals to represent processes such as going to a restaurant. -Long-term memory is thought to be organised semantically (connected to words) -unlimited capacity -accessible days, months or years later -unconscious storing and organising information definition, rehearsal, remembering an association, grouping Difficulties in using strategies for children -Mediational Deficiency: Problems in carrying out the cognitive operations necessary for the strategy. -Production Deficiency: Failing to use a strategy even when there is the cognitive ability to do so. -Less developed Metamemory: Metamemory is knowledge about memory, including knowledge such as it is easier to remember a short list than a long list. Childhood Amnesia -Adults don’t remember their life 3-4 years -Language- you need to have vocab for effective memory storage - need to have an understanding of self, to understand this memory is happening to me Schema -declarative or procedural knowledge structures in LTM -Better the schema the easier it will be to retrieve info Essay Questions Multiple choice questions Short answer tests Long term memory increases - Automatised facts, concepts, skills -new, related items learnt quickly and easily -effective use of memory cues -can retrieve knowledge more effectively -beginning signs of expertise in areas

Eche2180 Exam notes – Breeana 47212152 EF’s and self-regulation -EFs are often confused with Self-Regulation. Self-regulation involves use of Efs to control behaviour. -Contemporary IQ tests include some EF tests. -EFs involve the prefrontal cortex -Executive dysfunction is found in children with ADHD. -Associated with development of ‘theory of mind’, but EF can be normal when theory of mind performance is below expected levels. (Implications for autism – mixed and unclear) Key areas for successful academic and behavioural outcomes: - Working Memory (different to short term memory) - Planning - Rule Switching (aka cognitive flexibility) - Inhibitory Control Implications for educators Guide student’s attention- that is what will go into working memory Don’t overload working memory- it is limited, think about how we present our info, so students are engaged and not overwhelmed remember what is automatic for you might not be for them practise- allow time for practise to provide students with opportunities for automaticity Memory Capacity- what changes? - memory capacity increases with age - Children might fail to use appropriate strategies due to insufficient capacity -More efficient storage and retrieval processes occur with age. -The knowledge base is larger. -Improved metamemory. -Changes in all of the above may interact - more exercise = better memory

Eche2180 Exam notes – Breeana 47212152 Cognitive Development - Any mental activity or processing - cognition includes all aspects of thinking e.g. memory, reasoning, problem solving, - develops across childhood - Cognition- happening within the memory system – as it requires attention and perception, including thinking, reasoning and knowing - cognitive activities include remembering, problem solving, analysing and thinking. Key development concepts -explanations of development -domain-general = apply across all domains -domain-specific = development that occurs at different time points in different domains Research challenges -Self report – must ensure child is capable of expressing those abilities. No false negatives or false positives. True or false questions – need to account for chance selection Developing verbal and cognitive skills- as children are still developing the tests need to be age and skill appropriate, child must understand, must account for attention and working memory limitations. False positive- responses can be over interpreted leading to assumptions that children know more than they do False negatives- conclude child know less than they do as they sometimes have difficulty telling us what they know. How does development occur Piaget? - maturation, inbuilt processors that help you reach stages -Activity- interacting with the world helps your thinking -Assimilation- using current schemas to interpret new events -Accommodation-adjusting or making new schema to fit an event Differences in culture -differences in SES -maternal education is a strong predictor of cognitive development Individual differences -child’s interest -processing speed – giftedness -perceptual reasoning – autism Play play offers children with lots of opportunities for cognitive development. people argue that there is a lack of play in western education cultures which impacts cognitive development Theoretical approach- Paget’s stage theory ->> stage model development – 4 stages - characterised by sensory and motor exploration, need to be able to achieve cognitive milestones e.g., object permanence, deferred imitation - representational ability- make believe play, symbolism, rapid language development ‘childish reasoning’ – egocentrism, animism and magic, perception-bound - logical reasoning – pass conservation tasks, understands identity, reversibility and compensation - abstract thoughts emerge- understand hypothetical situations, problem solving, critical thinking, mathematical reasoning. Interpreting Info that we pay attention to, so it goes into memory Non-piaget non- Piagetian research -research from the original to bring it into the modern world -more complex findings for individuals -stages underestimate ability- children can often do things before the stages indicate - interactions with working memory – people may underperform on certain tasks because the question wording overloads the child’s working memory capacity. -Not just maturation – there is domain specific research that found the environment plays a bigger role than piaget assumed. -cultural differences-

Eche2180 Exam notes – Breeana 47212152 Assessment of development and intelligence - Reasons for assessment- Access to support SLSO, NDIS, additional support, early intervention, diagnosis, facilitate of services and support however, assessments can be very emotionally difficult for families and can be expensive. -NDIS= evidence of diability or developmental delay for children under 7 years of age, this includes: mobility, communication, social interaction, learning, self-care, ability to self-manage. - There must always be a reason to conduct an assessment- Reasons include educational placement and funding, early intervention, assessment of change/improvement. The child needs to understand why the assessment is taking place. Development of self What is intelligence ? Teachers Roles: -Ask questions, to obtain further info -Provide as much developmental info as possible -Reports are often written in deficit terms to make it clear that funding and other resources are required, and parents may need help understanding this. -support families in the use of info to achieve goals -Some parents may not want a copy of the assessment/report, respect this decision. Other notes -Schools can access support if children meet particular profiles in their intelligence tests even support with transport to school. -A child and families may have some developmental difficulties where the assessment is a cold evaluation which can be difficult, confronting and emotional for

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