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Psychology of Personality Exam III Madisyn Hurley Katherine L Zupancic

Question one: Describe the various schedules of reinforcement. Which of these schedules would be most conducive to creating self-efficacy in a child learning a new skill and why? In experimental psychology, the study of reinforcement schedules has provided valuable insights into how behavior can be modified. Reinforcement, the process of strengthening a behavior by following it with a desirable consequence, plays a central role in shaping and maintaining behavior. In our previous discussions, we explored different types of reinforcement schedules and their impact on behavior. Notably, the research conducted by Ferster and Skinner (1957) has been influential in understanding these schedules and their effects. Among the various schedules examined, four have emerged as representative and have significantly contributed to our understanding of behavioral modification. These schedules include fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio reinforcement schedules. By examining these schedules, we can gain deeper insights into how behaviors are influenced and determine which schedule is most conducive to fostering self-efficacy in a child learning a new skill. Fixed interval reinforcement schedule (FI): In this schedule, the organism is reinforced for a response made after a specific period. For example, reinforcement is given only for a response made following a 30-second interval (Olson et al., 2019, p. 209). As an organism becomes accustomed to this schedule, its behavior tends to accelerate toward the end of the time interval and then slows down drastically after reinforcement is obtained. Individuals who receive a fixed weekly or monthly salary are on this type of schedule. Similarly, students often wait until the deadline approaches before starting their term papers and then work intensely to finish. Such behavior is characteristic of a FI schedule. It is important to note that with this schedule, only one response is needed to obtain reinforcement if the response is made at the right time. Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule (FR): In the fixed ratio schedule, the organism must make a specific number of responses before reinforcement is given. For example, every fourth (FR4) response is reinforced (Olson et al., 2019, p. 209). This schedule generates extremely high rates of response and is typically observed in individuals who work on a piecework basis or receive a commission. In these cases, the more effort put into work, the higher the pay, as reinforcement is contingent upon the number of responses rather than the passage of time.

Variable interval reinforcement schedule (VI): Under this schedule, the organism is reinforced at the end of variable time intervals. Instead of reinforcing the organism after a fixed interval (e.g., every 10 seconds), reinforcement occurs on average every 10 seconds (Olson et al., 2019, p. 209). For instance, a response might be reinforced after 7 seconds, then after 20 seconds, and then after 2 seconds. Bosses who believe in periodically rewarding their workers often employ this schedule. At various points during work, the boss provides reinforcement, such as a kind word, even if the workers did nothing extraordinary to deserve it. Variable ratio reinforcement schedule (VR): Like the FR schedule, the VR schedule is response contingent. In this case, reinforcement is based on an average number of responses. Instead of being reinforced for every fourth response, the organism is reinforced, on average, for every fourth response (Olson et al., 2019, p. 209). Thus, reinforcements may occur close together or far apart. The faster the organism responds, the more reinforcement it will receive on this schedule. Gambling behavior is controlled by a VR schedule, as is the behavior of salespersons. For example, the faster one pulls the handle of a slot machine, the more frequently one receives a payoff (and the faster one may exhaust their funds). Salespeople who make more contacts tend to achieve higher sales, given the nature of the VR schedule. In conclusion, understanding the various schedules of reinforcement is crucial for comprehending how behaviors are modified. The fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio schedules each have distinct characteristics and influences on behavior. To foster self-efficacy in a child learning a new skill, a combination of continuous reinforcement initially and a gradual shift towards a variable ratio schedule may be most conducive. Continuous reinforcement provides immediate feedback and helps establish a connection between the behavior and the desired outcome. Transitioning to a variable ratio schedule maintains motivation and reinforces the belief that continued efforts will eventually lead to success. Question two: How does “modeling” contribute to the development of personality in human beings?

Over the years, many personality theorists have operated under the assumption that an individual's behavior remains consistent over time and across similar situations. This implies that how a person acts in one instance will reflect their behavior in other situations, and they will tend to respond similarly. Additionally, it was believed that scores on personality tests and questionnaires would significantly correlate with actual behavior. For example, if someone scored high on a scale measuring introversion, it was expected that they would exhibit introverted tendencies in social settings. The focus for theorists was not whether behavior was consistent, but rather how to account for the assumed consistency. Psychoanalytic theory attempted to explain this consistency by proposing the existence of repressed experiences, complexes, fixations, or internalized values. However, within psychoanalytic theory, reaching conclusions about consistency often requires the expertise of a trained psychoanalyst. This is because extreme aggression may signify passivity, love may imply hate, and repulsion may indicate attraction, among other complexities. However, trait theory posited enduring traits as an explanation for consistency. For instance, a person who tends to be neat in a wide variety of situations would be attributed with the trait of neatness (Olson et al., 2019, p. 252-253). In contrast, learning theory emphasized the role of reinforcement in shaping behavior. According to this perspective, behavior that is reinforced is more likely to persist and transfer to similar situations where reinforcement has previously occurred. Learning theorists suggest that the consistency observed in behavior stems from the influence of past reinforcements. If a certain behavior has been reinforced in the past, it is more likely to be repeated in the future. Bandura, a prominent social cognitive theorist, expands on behavior consistency by highlighting modeling's role in personality development (Bandura, 1986, p. 296). He argues that media, such as news and entertainment, serve as influential models in society. Bandura advocates for stricter regulations of any media content that promotes cruelty or immoral behavior. However, he acknowledges the complexity of controlling such material, as there is often disagreement over what is considered harmful, and suppressing material may conflict with the right to free expression (Olson et al., 2019, p. 260).

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