Fertebrate Innate Immune System

The innate and adaptive immune response start with exposure to an antigen in the epithelium of

Adaptive immunity (p.446): The body’s ability to recognize and defend itself against distinct invaders and their products.

Humans such as us alike cannot live in a world without a highly effective defense system that helps us to resist against infections and toxins caused by microorganisms. The immune system is a complex network of consorting cells, tissues and organs that defend the body from pathogens and other harmful substances. This essential complex consists of two subsections : the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system.

The Immune framework is a progression of complex procedures which has developed to shield the body from assault by remote pathogens. These pathogens can enter our body through the skin or covering of the inner organs. The invulnerable framework can shield us from intracellular and extracellular living beings and also from ourselves, halting malignancies and immune system illnesses from spreading in our bodies (Bastian, 1993). There are two lines of guard, the versatile (particular) and natural (non-particular insusceptibility), however both are united in their objective to annihilate pathogens they have distinctive approaches to handle this. Intrinsic resistance is the first line of protection while versatile insusceptibility is the 2nds line

Immunity depends on the recognition of pathogen components by innate receptors expressed on immune and non-immune cells against microbial pathogens. Innate receptors are conserved germ-line-encoded proteins and include TLRs (toll-like receptors), RLRs [RIG-1 like receptors (retinoic acid-inducible gene-1)] and NLRs (nod-like receptors). Receptors recognize pathogens or pathogen-derived products in different cellular compartments, for instance plasma membrane, endosomes or the cytoplasm, and induce the expression of cytokines, chemokines and co-stimulatory molecules to eliminate molecules to eliminate pathogens and instruct pathogen specific adaptive immune response.

Evolution has been the force behind countless changes throughout the animal kingdom since the beginning of time. Even after species are broken up into their specific phloem, the differences between them are still evident. Although the invertebrate group is bigger in numbers, there is still much contrast, among the vertebrates of the world. In this paper, the immune systems of the varying vertebrates, the Crucian Carp, *insert two vertebrate groups here*, will be examined and the disparity between them will be discussed.

The consequence of these interactions is an adaptive immune response of antigen-specific lymphocytes to the antigen, as well as the development of immunological memory. Adaptive immune responses are generated by clonal selection of lymphocytes, and are distinct from innate responses. The immune response consequence is in result to the antigen

It seems that innate and adaptive immune system cooperate with each other to manifest respiratory symptoms in COPD patients. Actually, irritant substances such as inhaled cigarette smoke induce and activate macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells, which belong to the innate immune system as well as epithelial cells in lungs. Activation of these cells causes release of substances called chemotactic cells, for instance, C‑chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) that leads to attracting inflammatory cells such as monocytes. In addition, these macrophages and epithelial cells release multiple chemokines, including fibroblast growth factor (FGF) that causes proliferation of fibroblast and as a result, remodeling of airways. Furthermore, activated dendritic cells stimulate adaptive immune system that consists of different kinds of cells such as cytotoxic CD8+ T cells, T helper CD4+T cells, and B-cell. Therefore, lymphoid follicles on chronic inflammation are formed due to the response of these types of adaptive immune cells.

The innate immune system is your body’s first line of defense against foreign pathogens. It consists of both physical and chemical barriers. Foreign pathogens that are found in the body have patterns on them that allow the body’s immune cells to identify it. These are called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The host cells use special receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognize PAMPs. With the pathogen identified, it can be tagged for Phagocytosis. The pathogen becomes attached to membrane evagination called pseudopodia. The pathogen is then ingested into the host’s immune cell, forming a phagosome. The phagosome then binds with a lysosome. The pathogen is killed and digested by lysosomal enzymes and the

The immune system is a defence mechanism inbuilt in all living organisms comprised of specific biological processes and structures. Its purpose is to protect against disease using the networks of cells, tissues and organs that work cohesively for protection. In order to function correctly, the immune system must be able to detect and distinguish an expansive variety of pathogens that derive from harmful viruses, bacteria, protozoans, parasites etc. The immune system can be divided into subsystems including the adaptive immune system and the innate immune system, as well as act as part of a whole of the organisms’ body,

Although the innate and adaptive immune systems both function to protect against invading organisms, they differ in a number of ways. The adaptive immune system requires some time to react to an invading organism, whereas the innate immune system includes defenses that, for the most part, are constitutively present and ready to be mobilized upon infection. Second, the adaptive immune system is antigen specific and reacts only with the organism that induced the response. In contrast, the innate system is not antigen specific and reacts equally well to a variety of organisms. Finally, the adaptive immune system demonstrates immunological memory. It “remembers” that it has encountered an invading organism and reacts more rapidly on subsequent

Innate immunity refers to nonspecific defence mechanisms that respond to an antigen's presence in the host body. These mechanisms include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body. The innate immune response is activated by chemical properties of the antigen.

If a pathogen breaches barriers: innate immune response result into an immediate effect of non- specific response. All Innate immune systems derived from plants and animals, when a pathogen evades the innate response, a third layer of protection is possessed by vertebrates in which activation of adaptive immune system takes place. The immune system response adopts itself within an infection and pathogen recognition is improved. As a result of the improved response, its then retains itself when the pathogen is eliminated in form of an immunological memory and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger when pathogen is encountered each time.

Spleen is the largest lymphatic organ in the body containing white-blood cells that fight diseases or infections. It also helps control the amount of blood in the body and disposes old or damaged blood cells.

Macrophages form an essential component of innate immunity. Activation of macrophages releases an array of mediators that regulate all aspect of host defense, inflammation and homeostasis [1]. In unremitting inflammatory conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, persistent antigen stimulation resulted in macrophage dysfunction which leads to inflamed synovial membrane and joint destruction [2]. The presence of macrophages at the site of inflammation can be further evident by elevated levels of macrophage derived inflammatory cytokines and mediators such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and COX-2 [3, 4]. Therefore, inhibition of these inflammatory mediators can helps in ameliorating inflammatory condition.