Importance Of The Reproductive Neurendocrine Prochans In Biology

The gonads are the male and female reproductive organs, the testes (males) and ovaries (females). The testes and ovaries produce androgens (testosterone) and estrogens, these hormones affect aggressiveness, mood, and sexual interest and behavior. Higher levels of these hormones have been shown to promote aggressiveness in both sexes (Morris and Maisto, 2002).

The hypothalamus produces hormones that travel in blood vessels to the anterior pituitary, stimulating it to produce other hormones.

In the female reproductive system a hormone known as estrogen is controlled by gonadotropin which is controlled by negative feedback. During negative feedback from the estrogen prevent the anterior pituitary gland

Prenatal and perinatal hormones organize the components of the brain and create either a male or female brain and thereby produce male or female typical behavior (5). The most sexually dimorphic region of the brain is located in the hypothalamus. The sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area (SDN-POA) is the most differentiated portion of the brain between sexes. In humans, the SDN is twice as large in young adult men than it is in women. The SDN-POA also plays an essential role in the secretion of gonadotropin, maternal behavior, and sexual behavior in many mammals and therefore implies that it is critical in human sexual behavior. There are four cell groups located in this preoptic-anterior hypothalamic area. These four groups have been termed the Interstitial Nuclei of the Anterior Hypothalamus (INAH 1-4). Research done on these cell groups shows that the INAH-3 is about three times larger in the male brain than it is in the female brain (6). The INAH-2 is twice as large in the male brain than the female brain (6). The importance of these regions in sexual differentiation (between the sexes) led scientists to believe that sexual orientation could be on a continuum in this area of neurological research (7).

A: The hypothalamus controls hormone release mainly through the pituitary gland by sending signals in the form of releasing hormones to prompt the anterior lobe to secrete them as the main function of the pituitary gland is hormone secretion into the body. The anterior lobe is responsible for the release of crucial hormones including; growth hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone and finally prolactin.

The hypothalamus is a small cone-shaped structure (Benson, 2016); it is a portion of the brain containing a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. The hypothalamus has considerable functions of linking the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland also called hypophysis. The location of the hypothalamus is directly below the thalamus and is part of the limbic system (Benson, 2016). In the human body, the hypothalamus controls some of the metabolic processes including some other activities of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). All vertebrate brain contain a hypothalamus. The most significant effect of injuries to or abnormalities in the hypothalamus on behavior are the changes in the individual’s digestive

Androgens—especially testosterone—have long been studied for their myriad effects on animal behavior. An early paper by Tollman and King (1956) attempted to study the effects of testosterone on aggression in rats. Their method tested the effects of testosterone propionate on three groups of rats: gonadectomized males, gonadectomized females, and intact females. All surgeries, including sham operations, occurred at 30 days of age. The

During the adolescence developmental stage, there are rapid body changes as puberty is in full swing. Female and male individuals undergo several changes suitable for their physical stature and composition. During these years, adolescents experience changes in their physical development at a rate of speed unparalleled since infancy. Physical changes in adolescence includes enlargement of the Adam's apple, growth of hair in the genital areas and under arms of both males and females. Body proportions also change with females developing bigger hips and breasts, ovulation, and menstrual cycle begins. Males, meanwhile, start producing sperm, erections and ejaculations, wet dreams, and darkening of the scrotum. Hormonal balance also shifts strongly towards an adult stage. Hormonal balance is initiated by the pituitary glands that are responsible for the secretion of hormones such as testosterone or estrogen into the blood stream and results in these physical changes. “ The adrenal glands increase

The Pituitary is crucial as it regulates the function of many endocrine glands, including the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes. Additionally, it regulates homeostasis and promotes the release of many essential hormones.

Increased levels of testosterone synthesis enzyme 17alpha-hydroxylase during theca ovarian stimulation with insulin mediated cell signalling activate cascade insulin receptor protein phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) (Figure 2). Specific inhibition of

As the control center of the endocrine system, the hypothalamus interacts with the body in a unique way. It has a symbiotic relationship with the pituitary gland, which stimulates the release of hormones to different parts of the body. Located inferior to the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland lies within a cavity of the sphenoid bone known as the sella turcica. The hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland through two separate lobes: one leading to the anterior pituitary and another leading to the posterior pituitary. The connection of these two lobes through the infundibulum forms the bridge between the nervous and endocrine systems.

Follicle Stimulation Hormone is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone. A gonadotropin cell is produced in the anterior pituitary gland that then regulates sexual development and reproduction function. The hormone is synthesized and also regulates pubertal maturation. The production and release of this hormone is regulated by levels of a number of circulating hormones in the ovaries and testes. This system is called a hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. The hypothalamus releases the hormone that binds with receptors in the anterior pituitary that stimulates and synthesis the release. The release is carried in the bloodstream where it binds with receptors in the testes and ovaries. This system controls the functions of the testes and ovaries.

The presence of oestrogen receptors have been shown within the hypothalamus, pituitary, ovary, oviduct, uterus, cervix and vagina of several species including

Hypogonadism is a condition characterized by the inability of the testes to produce testosterone. The condition also results when the pituitary gland is unable to release LH. Doctors most commonly recommend testosterone therapy which involves the ingestion or injection of testosterone into the body in specified doses as a treatment procedure for hypogonadism. According to Bassil, Alkaade, and Morley (2009), one of the most common effects of testosterone on males is improved sexual desire and performance. The researchers report that men exhibiting greater sexual activity have relatively higher amounts of testosterone than their counterpart who experience problems in their sex lives (Bassil et al., 2009). Ideally, testosterone deficiency is associated with men sexual problems such as erectile dysfunction, and low libido. Furthermore, citing a research by Wang et al., Bassil et al. (2009) point out that the there is a threshold for the effects that when exceeded results into no notable effect on the men’s sexual

The first studies the authors reviewed attempted to make a connection between evolution and naturally occurring hormones. This portion of the paper, paragraph 2,