Macrophage Case Study

Red and white blood cells are the two types of blood cells in the human body. Red blood cells transport oxygen around the body which is transferred through the bloodstream. It moves oxygen into the body and then removes it. They are absorbed through its haemoglobin.

Cytokinines are the one of the primary mediators that signal other cells to release additional mediators such as tumour necrosis factor-a (TNF-a) interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, IL-8, interferon, leukotrienes, histamine, bradykinin, prostaglandins, thromboxane A2, serotonin, nitric oxide, arachidonic acid, platelet-activating factor (PAF), oxygen free radicals and myocardial depressant factor (Munford, 2001:67). If the invading organism is a gram negative bacterium, endotoxins are also released, which further stimulate the production of these inflammatory mediators (Jones & Bucher, 1999:134).

There is still much to be discovered about this disease. Researchers will be studying the fungi and its effects on ecosystems for many years.

It is of upmost important that immune defenses work in a regular coordinated manner so that the host can fight with infection and a regulated immune system prevent the deleterious effects of unchecked immune responses on host cells [63]. As Caenorhabditis elegans is susceptible to infection by a variety of fungal and bacterial pathogens so it employs a highly coordinated innate immune system to detect and counter pathogen attack, no matter the attacking pathogen is ingested or comes into external contact with the animal [64, 65].

The host adaptive immune response produces an inflammatory reaction to the death or dying parasites. The subsequent release of parasite molecules and inflammatory mediators results an irreversible lymphatics dysfunction. (Figueredo-Silva et al., 2002; Nutman, 2013). The lymphatic dysfunction predispose a suitable environment for secondary bacterial or fungal infection, initiate inflammatory reaction in the skin and subcutaneous tissue, and enhance progression of lymphedema and precipitate the development of elephantiasis (Nutman, 2013)

Phagocytosis, process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or overwhelm different cells or particles. The phagocyte might be a free-living one-celled life form, for example, a single adaptable cell, or one of the body cells, for example, a white platelet. In a few types of creature life, for example, one-celled critters and wipes, phagocytosis is a methods for nourishing. In higher creatures phagocytosis is mostly a protective response against disease and intrusion of the body by outside substances

The innate immune system is your body’s first line of defense against foreign pathogens. It consists of both physical and chemical barriers. Foreign pathogens that are found in the body have patterns on them that allow the body’s immune cells to identify it. These are called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The host cells use special receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognize PAMPs. With the pathogen identified, it can be tagged for Phagocytosis. The pathogen becomes attached to membrane evagination called pseudopodia. The pathogen is then ingested into the host’s immune cell, forming a phagosome. The phagosome then binds with a lysosome. The pathogen is killed and digested by lysosomal enzymes and the

Cell mediated immunity in the infected host is very important to respond to fungal invaders. Phagocytic cells like macrophages, and neutrophils produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) which kill

The macrophage is one of the white cells. From the white blood cell called monocytes, the macrophages are produced. It is a cell responsible for engulfing, digesting a cellular debris and is able to locate the foreign substances and cancer cells. In order to get rid of the unwanted invaders the phagocytosis destroys and cleans the body. The macrophage is aware of which cell is to keep and which do not belong to the body.

The immune system takes around 14 days to completely fight of Streptococcus pyogenes or better known as strep throat. The bacterium normally goes through the mouth most are wiped out by stomach acid juices and by lysozymes in the saliva, which damages the outer layer of the bacteria. The microbes that are able to escape from IgA antibody in saliva attached themselves in the throat. By the time microbes enter the blood phagocytosis, which ingest bacteria, becomes useless since then the microbes secretes toxic towards that defense. As the microbes increases, so do macrophages and dendritic cells begin to destroy the bacteria. Macrophages ingest foreign particles in the bloodstream. By this time B cells produce antibodies, which attack the

George Mackaness coined the concept of macrophage resistance and activation in the beginning of the 20th century. He showed that the “inactivation” of macrophages had a lot to do with the pathogen-host interaction. In other words, substances in their respective microenvironments could influence macrophages to attain a particular phenotype (7). This eventually becomes significant when studying cancer and the microenvironment associated with it. One of the most important milestones in the study of macrophages was the their identification as sources of cytokines.

Adhesion is a broad category, but due to the variety of entry ways and different sites of attachment fungi can have on a human this gives the potential for high pathogenesis. That is the infection is able to develop because of the different sites available to the fungi as it grows. Other factors that can attribute to the severity of this are things such as suppressed immune systems of the host, type of fungi, and mode of entry/site of entry. Mode of entry is unique because spores of reproducing fungi can be inhaled while other fungal infections may only be contracted through direct contact. With the broad array of niches available to fungi this also expands the possibilities of contact/exposure. For example some fungi are found on food and contact comes through the consumption of this food. Since epidermal infections are often more common, but less pathogenic than internal infections this is often overlooked by medical professionals.

target larger parasites, typically worms (Graham, et al., 2005). Some of the first studies of Type 1 cytopathic immune responses were with Tumor Necrosis Factor (Tracey and Cerami, 1994). Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF), a cytokine produced in response to invasion by a parasite, was found to cause tissue damage to the host during its response to a viral invasion, causing a reaction very similar to septic shock (Tracey and Cerami, 1994). For larger infections, Type 2 cytokines are the most common immune response (Graham et al., 2005). While attempting to repair tissue damage caused by worms, these cytokines can often overcorrect the problem, causing fibrosis (Graham et al., 2005).

To establish that Imperio (toxin) promotes the survival of A.kadavra (pathogen) and kills the host, there will need to be an in vivo model established. A wild type mouse with a working Crucio receptor and no pathogen exposure will be compared against a wild type mouse with a working Crucio receptor that has been exposed to the toxin and a mouse with a Crucio knockout and toxin exposure. Data points will be collected as follows: the

use the manual assay as the standard reference and trouble shoot each step of the protocol to improve the design of the automated assay. We will also test additional reagents such as protease K, hybridization mix, and wash buffers in order to improve the robustness of the protocol.