Path Loss Formula

The amplitude affects the strength of the force, that is the length of the force vectors in the electromagnetic wave. The wavelength of the wave depends only on the frequency with which the electron in the transmitting antenna is oscillating up and down; and the speed of light.

Femtocell are designed to operate on low transmit power and Wi-Fi consumes more power. In which we read quality of services (Wi-Fi operates higher frequencies which offer weaker penetration) Femtocell can be used 2 different approaches. The cost of both networks not considered

An optical wave for wireless communication has big advantage as it exceed 1 Giga bps. It can’t cross water boundary easily, suffers from severe absorption and scattering suspending particles and planktons is significant • Moderate link range (up to tens of meters).

Wheat, Hiser, Tucker, Neely and McCullough (2011) define fixed wireless networks as a technology which utilizes line-of-sight technology with both the transmitter and receiver at fixed locations (p. 159). The Fresnel zone within which the signals operate must be clear of any form of obstruction in order to avoid absorption and loss of signal strength. Wheat et al. , gives examples of fixed wireless technologies as Wireless Local Loop technologies, Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service (MMDS), Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) and Point-to-Point Microwave.

The above two methods described require a Line of Sight channel between the transmitter and the reciever which might not always be available. In such a scenario,radio propogation and time of arrival signals suffer from multipath effect.Therefore the accuracy of the estimated location can be affected.Another approach is to use the attenuation suffered by the emitted signal to determine the distance of the object from the measuring unit.These methods calculate the signal path loss from

Antennas also have a front-to-back ratio that is measured in dBs. The forward gain is the maximum gain at the end of the main lobe of the antenna. The rear gain is measured either at 180 degrees from the main lobe, or from 90 degrees to 270 degrees from the main lobe. Using the wider sector is the better way to measure this distance. These back lobes are also undesirable. A front-to-back ratio of 10-15 dB is fair, 15-20 dB is good, 20-30 dB is very good, and above 30 dB is excellent. The regions in between the main and minor lobes are areas of weak signals called nulls.

Where the is the azimuth angle measure from the north clockwise, is the zenith distance that mean the angle the vertical and the radian and r is the radian of the in the local system.

It was also observed that the higher the antenna gain, the longer the antenna separating distance.

Where Y & x are received and transmitted vectors, H is channel matrix & n is the noise.

As the reflection coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, the VSWR ranges from 1 to ∞.

The power from each individual antenna is proportional to the 1/M. There is algorithm that is V-BLAST algorithm which is used to perform at the receiver site. Taking into account, in the case of uplink there is number of conventional receiver at the base station and they are receiving the signals which are generated from N number of transmitters and therefore they must have considerable interference between the data stream. V-BLAST algorithm at the receiver is used to mitigate the interference between different streams and try to generate the original data stream at the receiver. V-BLAST used optimal combining and interference cancellation technique. The signal which is having the best SNR is retrieved at the receiver. In the figure shown below which illustrates the good performance achieved at the receiver. V-BLAST technique is referred as non-linear technique as it generates

As you can see from Fig. 3, the horizontal delay between the transmitted and the received signals is the time delay used for range measurement and the vertical shift is the Doppler Shift used for velocity calculations. But

varies as d−γ, where d is the transmission distance and γ is the path loss exponent [36–38]. In other words,

In which γ is derived from the wave port 2D cross section calculation and Ldmb is the distance that reference plane is moved.

The atmosphere is a composition of gases: 21.0% of Oxygen (O2), 78.0% of Nitrogen (N2), 0.9% of Argon (Ar), and a variable quantity of Water Vapor, that evolves the earth’s globe, and has the density of 1000km. It protects all earth’s living organisms of the exposition of high levels of ultraviolet radiation, and is important for the life and function of physics and biologics processes if the earth such as photosynthesis. It is characterized for its pressure, altitude, and temperature variation, that this last is measured with the altitude and together are the base to distinguish the different layers of the