Psychopathology: Comorbidity Of Mental Disor

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).Arlington, VA: Author.

Current psychological research on personality disorders aims to identify psychological and psychopathologic dynamics latent to violent behaviors. In

In 2013, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) broadly launched the Research Domain Criteria project (RDoC). The purpose of RDoC is to provide a working framework to advance dimensional approaches of classifying psychopathology on the basis of observable behaviors and neurobiological measures (National Institute of Mental Health, 2013). Reflecting on the last thirty years, incredible progress has been made in understanding brain-behavior relationships in numerous mental disorders. The continued interdisciplinary work of geneticists, cognitive and affective neuroscientists, and behavioral researchers has not only expanded our knowledge of biological causal and maintenance factors, but has also provided the field with a strong

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is a reference book compiled by different experts to include psychiatrist, psychologists, and nurses. The DSM was created to provide a helpful guide to clinical practices and to serve as an educational tool for teaching psychopathology. The DSM classifies mental disorders in five areas called Axis’s. The areas of the DSM that will be discussed in more detail are anxiety, mood disorders, and dissociative or somatoform disorders. It will be interesting to compare the biological, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components of each disorder.

Along with age, gender, and culture, deterioration in interpersonal relationships and personality type could contribute to depression. The association between attachment insecurity and depression is higher when there is a history of physical (Goldberg, 1994; Kaufman, 1991), psychological (Ferguson & Dacey, 1997; Kaufman, 1991), or sexual abuse (Goldberg, 1994; Kinard, 1995) during childhood (Whiffen et al., 1999). One hypothesis is that early life stress (e.g. abuse, neglect), dysfunctional parenting style, and personality dimension (e.g. neuroticism, extroversion) lead to a neurobiologically different subtype of depression (Alsarraf & Nilsson, 2009; Luyten & Blatt, 2006). Moreover, maltreatment envisions depressive symptoms only through internal working models and self-esteem (Suzuki & Tomoda, 2015).

Mueser proposes that specific factors, in this case, genetic factors and antisocial personality disorder can independently increase the risk of developing both disorders (Mueser et al.1998). The genetic factor examines if one parent has a substance use disorder how likely will a child develop and mental health disorder and substance use disorder, the genetic factor determines if genetic vulnerability to one disorder increases risk to another disorder. Under the genetic factors lies the belief (through many current studies) there is a strong correlation between people with antisocial personality disorders (ASPD) and substance abuse. Mueser et al states individuals with ASPD had a conduct disorder as a child, resulting possible from parents who themselves had mental health, addiction or ASPD and the disorder and behaviors were passed on genetically and environmentally. As the child grows and develops so do the behaviors and personality traits of the person with ASPD surface.

Psychiatric diagnoses are categorized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th. Edition (DSM-V). The manual is published by the American

This particular case presents the notion of anxiety disorders which can have several trigger factors that will distress the subject normal day life, this disorders “include specific phobia, social anxiety disorder (…) panic disorder, agoraphobia, and generalized anxiety disorder.” (Oltmanns & Emery, 2015, p. 84).

The American Psychiatric Association published the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) in 2013. There have been eight publications of the manual (APA, 2013). Regardless of theoretical background clinicians need to understand the DSM. It is now the industry standard for evaluation and diagnosis. The DSM-5 comprehensively covers most behavioral mental and emotional concerns. Expertise and knowledge of the DSM-5 is necessary to obtain reimbursement from insurance companies. The complexity of the human mind and all of the working of psychopathology cannot be limited to a single book. Practitioners are bound by the DSM-5 as a universal communication system. The DSM-5 is a medical approach to a bio-psycho-social-spiritual malady. Diagnosis in the DSM is the classification of a mental illness or other problem by interpretation of the symptoms. Pathology of medical ailments is characterized by and organ, defect, and symptoms. Psychiatry seems to only have the handle on one component. Psychiatrists will openly admit that they know almost nothing in regards to the cause of most diagnoses (Whitaker, 2010 & Allen, 2013). Some clinicians and authors have been outspoken about their criticisms of the DSM-5. Frances (2013) states “our classification of mental disorders is no more than a collection

For instance, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) highlight factors such as environmental risks, culture-related issues, gender-related issues, and other risks. For environmental risk factors, childhood abuse is one of the largest influences in the development of DID. In some cases, an individual’s cultural background can also influence the course of their disorder. Kahn and Fawcett (2001) point out that it is important to consider a cross-cultural perspective when diagnosing DID because dissociation and different identities may be considered acceptable behavior in many cultures. Another important factor to consider is the suicide risk with DID. It is reported that nearly 70% of individuals with DID have attempted suicide or participated in frequent self-harm (DSM-V, 2013).

In the first issues of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), obsessions and compulsions – and then later obsessive-compulsive disorder – were under the category of anxiety disorders. Since then, the DSM has been changed to include a separate category called “Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders” (Ameringen, et al., 2014). This is due to the fact that there are many different factors that differ between anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder, including “course of illness, comorbidity, familiarity, genetic risk factors and biomarkers, personality correlates, cognitive-emotional processing, and treatment response” (Ameringen, et al., 2014, p. 488). These differences are critical for showing the discrepancy between these

In terms of percentage life time risk, for suicide in affective disorder risk is 6%, schizophrenia -4%, and alcohol dependence 7% according to {Inskip H.M. 1998}. This paper analysed data from 83 mortality studies of the specific disorders listed. However it should be noted that none of the samples were followed through “to extinction.” This may correspond with the increase we have seen in suicide rates since the financial crisis as rates of depression and alcohol dependence are likely to increase?

In the last 100 years there was a major challenges in the field of mental health is the lack of international consensus on diagnostic categories for mental disorders between Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM) and the international classification of diseases (ICD) which still elusive until now and still struggle to fulfil its purposes (Hickie et al 2013 ,p. 461) as both of them depends on observation of mainly middle-aged people with persistent mental disorders although major mental disorders begin before the age of 25years which does not address the earlier and specific clinical presentations of primary care and clinical setting and does not relate the risk factors and neurobiological and genetics (Hickie et al

The American system for the classification of mental disorders added personality disorders to the DSM III in 1980. At this point, interest and clinical research of the disordersbegan to grow. Studies soon confirmed what many clinicians believed; personality disorders were under diagnosed and extremely common. Nearly 80% of individuals seeking mental health treatment met the criteria for at least 1 of the 10 personality disorders. In “An Experiential-Descriptive Method for the Diagnosis of Personality Disorders” Edward E. Hunter state that “The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders,Fourth Edition defines personality disorders as "enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, andthinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts" (630)”(1).Often times people with a personality disorder have difficulty communicating. They may feel inferior or believe they will be judged and ridiculed. Hunterinsists that “When these traits are inflexible and maladaptive, causing significant functional impairment or subjective distress, they constitute a disorder”(1). Intensive therapy will likely be required if these patterns are to be disrupted. The disorder is defined as an "enduring pattern of inner experiences and behavior that deviates markedly from expectations of the individuals culture in two of the following areas: cognition, affectivity, interpersonal function and impulsecontrol" (qtd. In Hunter 1). Although all 10 personality disorders carry different symptoms, they all must fall under these guidelines to be diagnosed. It is widely believed that personality

The need of revising the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Disorders is the product of a discussion on 1999, between Steven Hyman, the director of the National Institute of mental health, Steven M. Mirin, the director of the American Psychiatric Association and David J. Kupter, the chair of the American Psychiatric Association Committee on Psychiatric Diagnosis and assessment. They concluded that they have to work together to develop a reliable agenda to expand and update the scientific basis for psychiatric classification and diagnosis. They come out with a consensus after revising gaps in the current health system, neuroscience new findings, new developmental issues, and cross-cultural problems. After several years or studies, revisions, and research, the DSM-5 officially replaced the DSM IV, on May 2013 at the American Psychiatric Association annual’s meeting.