Taking a Look at DNA Supercoiling

Firstly, DNA is constantly trying to coil itself back into its original position, which is a supercoiled polymer. So when the DNA is exposed to a stirring rod in a circular motion the DNA tries to coil itself to the rod. Secondly, another property of DNA, which is the fact that it is polar, causes it to attract to the polar glass rod. These two properties working together allow the DNA to coil around the stirring rod.

Each human being has something called DNA. DNA is described as genetics and an extremely long macromolecule that is the main component of chromosomes and is the material that transfers genetic characteristics in all life forms. DNA constructs of two nucleotide strands coiled around each other in a ladder like arrangement with the sidepieces composed of alternating phosphate and deoxyribose units and the rungs composed of the purine and pyrimidine bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Each chromosome consist of one continuous thread-like molecule of DNA coiled tightly around proteins and contains a portion of the 6,400,000,000 basepairs that make up your DNA.

Over the course of the modern age, the human body was still a mystery waiting to be solved. The body contains secrets one can only hope to discover. Over the twentieth century, scientists tried to understand one of the most complex concepts in the biological field. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) was at the forefront of research. Several theories claimed to have solved the structural concept of DNA. However, it was not until Francis Crick and James D. Watson discovered the true structure, the double helix. However, many potential models of DNA had passed through the biology field until eventual lose of credibility. The past models would contain a fixed detail that would make the entire concept invalid. In James D. Watson book, The Double Helix, he illustrates his path amid incorrect theories until he reaches the model that is taught around the world today.

DNA is a term that has been used in science as well as in many parts of daily

To sum this up DNA is an electronegative molecule with a lacking Oxygen found in the nuclei of Eukaryotes. Now let's go deeper, DNA is not only composed of Sugar, it is also composed of a phosphate backbone, and nitrogenous bases. The phosphate backbone generally expressed as PO4^-3 provides support for the nitrogenous bases [also bonding through ester bonds. The nitrogenous bases in DNA are divided into two Purines [Adenine and Guanine] and Pyrimidines [Thymine, Cytosine, and uracil in RNA] Purines are double ring structures, and Pyrimidines are Single ringed. In other words, they provide the perfect asymmetry of the DNA double helix. When Watson and Crick did their DNA model, they noticed that two Purines bonded together meaning for instance A-G was too wide, and too Pyrimidines bonded together would be too thin. But how did they know which was which? It was found that Adenine always double bonds with hydrogen bonds of course with Thymine, and that Guanine will always triple hydrogen bond with

The DNA being heated to 95° C. This will result in the weak hydrogen bonds that clutch the DNA strands together in a helix to break apart. This causes the separation of the strands resulting in the generation of single stranded DNA.

DNA, Deoxyribonucleic Acid, is the basic structure for all life, it is the blueprint, the instruction manual, on how to build a living organism. DNA is made up of four nitrogen bases, adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine which are connected by sugar-phosphate bonds. Through a process called Protein Synthesis, the nitrogen bases are the code for the creation of amino acids. Essentially, DNA makes amino acids, amino acids make proteins, proteins make organisms. This process has been taking place for much longer than scientists have been able to document. Those scientists are called geneticists and their field is genetics.

DNA, the molecule of life that carries genetic information in humans and almost all other organisms, has been considered as one of the greatest discoveries until now. If DNA could not have been discovered, we would not be able to do or test numerous things such as paternity test and pathological confirmation. There are four main scientists who contributed their lives, knowledge, and ambitions to find out the DNA double helix, a DNA molecule that has two strands winding around each other: James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin. Throughout historical backgrounds and environments, their discovery of

The DNA saga started in 1869, when Swiss biochemist Friedrich Miescher isolated a new substance from the nuclei of white blood cells. Researchers were recently aware that cells were the basic unit of life and Miescher was interested in their chemical components. Each morning, he called at the local clinic to pick up dirty bandages, for in the days before antiseptics these were soaked in pus - a good source of white blood cells with their large nuclei. Adding alkali made the cell nuclei burst open, releasing their contents, from which Miescher extracted DNA (which he called nuclein).

Watson and Crick’s paper discussed the discovery of the double helix in DNA. It included the angles created by the bonds between molecules that created the double helix nature of our DNA. In order to do such, they used Rosalind Franklin’s ‘Photo 51’ with hinted at the fact that our DNA was, in fact, a double helix. As a supplement to this photo, they made calculations based on numbers that described the x-ray crystallography from Franklin. The monoclinic unit cells that Crick saw in the DNA were the same as the ones he had found in horse haemoglobin from one of his previous studies confirming that DNA was made up of two matching strands that fit with one another.

DNA is found in everything everywhere. DNA is shaped like a double helix, which means it is double stranded and is connected by hydrogen bonds. Mendel did an experiment that showed the principles behind inheritance. The structure of DNA essentially explains how genetic information is passed from the parents to the offspring. One of the two strands in the double helix of DNA can be used as a blank template for creating an identical DNA molecule. Then sexual reproduction happens and genetic information is passed but if any complications or errors occur then mutations can happen.

DNA cloning is the process of creating a multitude of copies of isolated DNA fragments; DNA cloning can be carried out via in vitro or in vivo methods. One can clone a specific DNA sequence or entire gene fragments. There are a multitude of procedures to carry out DNA cloning, but the major steps are the same for all types. To begin the process, one must isolate a DNA fragment from the chromosomal DNA. This is done by using a restriction enzyme. One could also use gel electrophoresis and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The next step involves introducing the fragment into a DNA sequence that can replicate itself along with the DNA fragment. The restriction enzyme will cut a DNA molecule that can self-replicate, and then the isolated DNA fragment will be inserted by ligation, which connects the fragment to the larger DNA molecule. This new artificially joined DNA is called recombinant DNA.

In 1962, the Nobel Prize was awarded to Francis Crick and James Watson for formulating the structure of the complex molecule known as DNA. These discoveries were a direct result of the accumulation of many scientists’ earlier analyses and findings of the DNA. Before Watson and Crick had developed the double-helical structure of DNA, indication of this genetic material had been revealed around the 1850’s. During the century following the first evidence of DNA, subsequent researchers had been eagerly examining the physical and chemical components of this molecule. Moreover, scientists such as Erwin Chargaff and Linus Pauling established a scientific foundation of research for future experts like Watson and Crick to analyze and interpret. The history of science acknowledges Watson and Crick’s findings as an exclusive discovery of their studies. However, the knowledge required to expose these innovative ideas are a culmination of “human events in which personalities and cultural traditions play major roles” (Watson and Stent, 3). Watson’s personal account within The Double Helix introduces the significance of these scientific influences on his research and discovery of the DNA molecular structure. Without major scientific figures, such as Max Perutz, Rosalind Franklin, and Linus Pauling, the conceptualization of Watson and Crick’s DNA structure would not have successfully developed as it did in the 1950’s.

In short, quantum mechanics is ‘a mathematical framework that plays a huge role in modern physics and chemistry’. It was interpreted in many ways, however the Copenhagen Interpretation was the most widely held view, largely developed by Danish physicist Neils Bohr who worked in Copenhagen. The framework can be applied to different scientific phenomena and can be used to investigate the behaviour of the building blocks of the universe, all elementary particles. The complex mathematics is useful for these particles as they act in ways classical physics cannot explain. [1]

Hypothetically, if the world we know today was set back to the stone age because of a colossal destruction of a short. Where or how will information collected by us be preserved? And more importantly how will we binge watch the new season of ‘Stranger Things.’ Well it’s literally inside everyone and everything, any guesses, it’s DNA. So, hypothetically if we’re to store information in our DNA does that make us cyborgs, ah? Before we get too hypothetical, why DNA from all things. First of all, DNA will stand time long before an individual passed and secondly DNA is universal as DNA is in everyone and everything and thirdly DNA can be easily replicated without a limitation. Therefore, will DNA be the future of storing media? Yes. It’s