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A TRIP AROUND THE WORLD Jessie Brown AC2108460 Ashworth College World Geography Assignment 8 December 1 st 2023

Latin America has experienced a diverse economic landscape shaped by various factors, including export dependence, import substitution, debt crises, and the impact of free trade agreements. These elements have played crucial roles in determining the region's economic development and global integration. This journey aims to provide insights into the dynamics of these economic factors and their consequences on Latin American nations. Latin American economies have often been characterized by a heavy reliance on exports, particularly of raw materials and agricultural products. While this export-oriented approach has brought revenue, it also makes these nations vulnerable to fluctuations in global commodity prices. The "resource curse" phenomenon underscores the challenges associated with overdependence on exports of non-renewable resources (Sachs & Warner, 1995). Import substitution industrialization (ISI) was a prevalent economic strategy in Latin America during the mid-20th century. This approach aimed to reduce dependence on foreign goods by promoting domestic industries. While ISI initially led to industrial growth, it often resulted in inefficiencies, protectionism, and a lack of competitiveness, contributing to economic challenges (Thorp, 1998). Latin America faced severe debt crises in the 1980s, a consequence of accumulating substantial external debt. Overreliance on foreign borrowing, coupled with global economic shifts, led to a debt burden that many countries struggled to manage. The debt crises prompted economic reforms, structural adjustments, and negotiations with international financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (Bulmer-Thomas, 2003). The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), implemented in 1994 between Mexico, the United States, and Canada, significantly influenced Latin American economies. While NAFTA spurred increased trade and investment, it also sparked debates about its impact on income inequality, labor conditions, and environmental standards. Mexico experienced both benefits and challenges, with 1

sectors such as agriculture facing increased competition, while others, like manufacturing, thrived (Hufbauer & Schott, 2005). Latin America's economic landscape reflects a complex collaboration of export dependence, import substitution, debt crises, and the consequences of free trade agreements. The region has navigated challenges and opportunities associated with these factors, shaping the trajectory of its economic development. As Latin American nations continue to evolve in the global economic arena, understanding these dynamics remains crucial for policymakers and stakeholders alike. China and Japan, two major East Asian nations, have witnessed observable and potential impacts of climate change over the past five decades. The consequences of climate change extend beyond environmental concerns, affecting economies, societies, and ecosystems. This examination aims to shed light on the observed and potential impacts in both China and Japan, providing insights into the challenges and adaptations these nations face. China has experienced a noticeable rise in average temperatures over the last 50 years. Observations show a warming trend, impacting ecosystems, agriculture, and water resources (IPCC, 2014). The retreat of glaciers in regions like the Tibetan Plateau poses risks to downstream water supplies, affecting millions of people who depend on these resources (Xu et al., 2009). China has observed a rise in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, including floods, droughts, and typhoons, affecting millions, and causing significant economic losses (Shao et al., 2021). With a vast coastline, China faces the potential threat of sea-level rise, impacting coastal cities and infrastructure (Ning et al., 2022). Changes in precipitation patterns and increased temperatures may affect crop yields, posing challenges to China's food security 2

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(Tao et al., 2009). Rising temperatures and changing disease vectors may contribute to the spread of vector-borne diseases, impacting public health (Huang et al., 2017). Japan has observed an increase in the intensity of typhoons, leading to more severe impacts, including flooding, landslides, and damage to infrastructure (Kossin et al., 2020). Japan, like China, has experienced a warming trend, influencing ecosystems, agriculture, and urban heat island effects (JMA, 2020). Changes in the timing of natural events, such as flowering and migration, indicate the influence of climate change on Japan's biodiversity (Moriyama et al., 2015). Japan, with its extensive coastline, faces the potential threat of rising sea levels, impacting coastal communities and infrastructure (Kim et al., 2021). Projected increases in extreme heat events may pose risks to public health, agriculture, and energy demand in Japan (Lee & Min, 2017). Japan's marine ecosystems may face challenges due to ocean acidification, impacting fisheries and biodiversity (Haigh et al., 2015). The observed and potential impacts of climate change in China and Japan over the last 50 years highlight the complex challenges these nations face. From changes in temperature and extreme weather events to sea-level rise and impacts on agriculture and biodiversity, both countries are grappling with the consequences of a changing climate. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts in mitigation, adaptation, and international cooperation to build resilient and sustainable societies in the face of ongoing climate change. Multiculturalism and indigenous social movements have played pivotal roles in shaping the socio-political landscapes of New Zealand and Australia. These nations, with complex histories of colonization and cultural diversity, provide intriguing case studies for examining the interactions between multicultural policies and the aspirations of indigenous communities. This exploration aims to compare and contrast perspectives on multiculturalism and indigenous social movements in both 3

New Zealand and Australia, shedding light on the complexities of navigating cultural diversity and addressing historical injustices. In New Zealand, the concept of multiculturalism is often framed within the context of the Treaty of Waitangi, a foundational document that outlines the relationship between the Crown and Maori, the indigenous people of New Zealand. The multicultural discourse emphasizes the bicultural nature of New Zealand society, recognizing both Maori and non-Maori cultures (Taylor, 1992). In Australia, multiculturalism has been officially adopted as a policy since the 1970s, emphasizing the coexistence of diverse cultural groups. However, this policy has faced challenges, including debates over national identity and concerns about social cohesion (Doucerain et al., n.d.). Indigenous social movements in New Zealand have been marked by a strong emphasis on the recognition of Maori rights and the redress of historical grievances. The Waitangi Tribunal, established in 1975, has played a crucial role in addressing historical injustices and facilitating treaty settlements (McGinty, 1992). In Australia, the indigenous social movement has been characterized by activism around land rights, self-determination, and reconciliation. The establishment of the Aboriginal Land Rights Act in 1976 and the Sorry Day events reflect efforts to address the historical impact of colonization on Australia's indigenous peoples (Eller, 2021). Both New Zealand and Australia grapple with the legacy of colonization, and efforts to address historical injustices are framed within treaty contexts—the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand and the absence of a formal treaty in Australia. In both cases, these frameworks shape the discourse on indigenous rights and cultural recognition. While both countries officially embrace multiculturalism, New Zealand's bicultural approach emphasizes the relationship between Maori and non-Maori, while Australia's multiculturalism is designed to accommodate a diverse range of 4

cultural groups. The nuances in these approaches reflect the unique historical and cultural contexts of each nation. New Zealand's establishment of the Waitangi Tribunal has been central to addressing historical grievances and facilitating treaty settlements, providing a formal process for conflict resolution. In contrast, Australia lacks a comprehensive treaty process, and efforts to recognize indigenous rights have been more fragmented and localized. Australia's multicultural policy has faced challenges related to debates over national identity and concerns about social cohesion, revealing tensions around cultural diversity. In New Zealand, while the bicultural approach is ingrained in policy, challenges persist in fully realizing the aspirations of Maori communities, particularly in areas like language revitalization and resource management. The comparison and contrast of perspectives on multiculturalism and indigenous social movements in New Zealand and Australia highlight the complexities between historical legacies, policy frameworks, and the aspirations of diverse communities. While both nations struggle with the challenges of cultural diversity and historical injustices, the specific contexts of the Treaty of Waitangi and the absence of a formal treaty in Australia shape distinct approaches to multiculturalism and indigenous rights. Navigating these intricacies remains an ongoing process, requiring ongoing dialogue, policy refinement, and a commitment to justice and cultural recognition. 5

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References Bulmer-Thomas, V. (2003). The Economic History of Latin America since Independence. In Cambridge University Press (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/economic-history-of-latin-america-since-independence/ B17A1A0FF5F04F711B04EA2BAEB0AC26 CLIMATE CHANGE MONITORING REPORT 2020 . (2021). https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/NMHS/ccmr/ccmr2020.pdf Doucerain, M., Dere, J., & Ryder, A. (n.d.). Travels in hyper-diversity: Multiculturalism and the contextual assessment of acculturation . Researchgate.net. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259097982_Travels_in_hyper- diversity_Multiculturalism_and_the_contextual_assessment_of_acculturation Eller, J. (2021, October). Introducing Anthropology of Religion . Www.researchgate.net; Global Center For Religious Research. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355432205_Introducing_Anthropology_of_Religion_C ulture_to_the_Ultimate Haigh, R., Ianson, D., Holt, C. A., Neate, H. E., & Edwards, A. M. (2015). Effects of Ocean Acidification on Temperate Coastal Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries in the Northeast Pacific. PLOS ONE , 10 (2), e0117533. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117533 IPCC. (2014). AR5 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2014 — IPCC . Ipcc.ch; IPCC. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/ Kim, M., Lee, S., Lee, H., & Lee, S. (2021). Phenological Response in the Trophic Levels to Climate Change in Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 18 (3), 1086. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031086 6

Kossin, J. P., Knapp, K. R., Olander, T. L., & Velden, C. S. (2020). Global increase in major tropical cyclone exceedance probability over the past four decades. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 117 (22), 11975–11980. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1920849117 Lee, S.-M., & Min, S.-K. (2017). Future Changes in Heat Stress over East Asia Resulting from Different Target Temperature Increases. NASA ADS , 10873. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017EGUGA..1910873L/abstract Li, T., Yang, Z., Dong, Z., & Wang, M. (2014). Meteorological factors and risk of scrub typhus in Guangzhou, southern China, 2006–2012. BMC Infectious Diseases , 14 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-139 McGinty, J. (1992, November). New Zealand’ ealand’s Forgotten Pr gotten Promises: The T omises: The Treaty of W eaty of Waitangi aitangi . Www.scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu. https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1985&context=vjtl NAFTA Revisited: Achievements and Challenges . (2016, April 21). PIIE. https://www.piie.com/bookstore/nafta-revisited-achievements-and-challenges Ning, Z., Zhang, J., Yuan, S., & Wang, G. (2022). Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources in the Western Route Areas of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project. Atmosphere , 13 (5), 799. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13050799 Sachs, J. D., & Warner, A. M. (1995, December). Natural Resource Abundance and Economic Growth . National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. https://www.nber.org/papers/w5398 Shao, W., Su, X., Lu, J., Liu, J., Yang, Z., Mei, C., Liu, C., & Lu, J. (2021). Urban Resilience of Shenzhen City under Climate Change. Atmosphere , 12 (5), 537. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12050537 7

Tao, F., Yokozawa, M., Liu, J., & Zhang, Z. (2009, April). Climate change, land use change, and China’s food security in the twenty-first century . https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226154640_Climate_change_land_use_change_and_C hina's_food_security_in_the_twenty-first_century_An_integrated_perspective Taylor, C. (1992). The Politics of Recognition . http://fs2.american.edu/dfagel/www/Class %20Readings/Taylor/multiculturalism.pdf Thorp, R. (1998). Progress, Poverty and Exclusion: An Economic History of Latin America in the 20th Century. Publications.iadb.org . https://publications.iadb.org/en/publication/16284/progress- poverty-and-exclusion-economic-history-latin-america-20th-century Xu, B., Cao, J., Hansen, J., Yao, T., Joswia, D. R., Wang, N., Wu, G., Wang, M., Zhao, H., Yang, W., Liu, X., & He, J. (2009). Black soot and the survival of Tibetan glaciers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 106 (52), 22114–22118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910444106 8

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