Ephedra (Ma Huang) is a genus of plant, most commonly derived from the dried herbaceous stems of the Chinese species, Ephedra sinica (Figure 1a and 1b). The natural plant source produces six Ephedra alkaloids, chemicals which are considered to be the active constituents of the plant; ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, norephedrine, norpseudoephedrine, methylephedrine and methylpsuedoephedrine (Figure 2) (Veitch et al., 2013). The presence and concentrations of these alkaloids depends primarily on the plant species, origin, growing conditions, and the raw plant material processing, with most species largely containing ephedrine and pseudoephedrine (Haller et al., 2004). Metabolomic studies have shown that anatomical parts of Ephedra sinica have different therapeutic pharmacological effects and for this reason, have been used for different purposes in medicine. This was demonstrated by Lv et al (2015), who used GC-MS to compare the concentrations of Ephedra sinica in the stems (Ma Huang) and in the roots (Mahuanggen) of different plant samples. It was concluded that the pharmacologically important ephedrine alkaloids were present in higher quantities in the stems. This is why Ephedra herb, sold as dry stems of Ephedra sinica, has been used as a commercial source of ephedrine alkaloids worldwide, in particular Europe and America (Lee 2011).
Ephedrine is a β-phenylethylamine widely used as a sympathomimetic in herbal preparations. The structure of ephedrine possesses two
As new data became available, we observed numerous copies of the THC Synthase Gene, which provided our research with a new goal to develop novel primer sets for each unique copy. My colleague and I each developed a novel set of primers and protocols associated with those primers, which has allowed us to determine the phylogeny and variation of these genes. Continuing to develop this research, we are analyzing possible correlations between the variations of a certain paralogs in relation to the phenotype or physical traits of the plant. We plan to publish the phylogenetic relationships we discovered, as well as any possible correlation between genotype and phenotype in October 2016. If a correlation can be concluded, these results and developed primers would be the first marker-assisted breeding available to successfully determine the drug content of Cannabis before flowering.
The S enantiomer is active and is responsible for “adrenergic blocking activity”, and the R enantiomer performs a “membrane stabilizing effect” (Kim). The R enantiomer is still active, but less active and linked to negative side effects (Patrick, G. L). Furthermore, propranolol is sold as a racemic mixture in the pharmaceutical industry, but the mixture ratio favors the S enantiomer (Wishart
Datura stramonium is a plant that can be as helpful as it is deadly. A member of the Solanaceae family, the plant contains three different types of alkaloids. These alkaloids are atropine, hyoscamine, and scopolamine. Some members of the Solanaceae family are potatoes, coffee, peppers, and tomatoes. (Gaire & Subedi, 2013) This essay will focus primarily on uses of scopolamine from the Datura stramonium for medicinal uses. Negative effects will focus on the entirety of the plant, such as in poisoning cases. The format used for the essay will be APA.
Apomorphine has been used as far back as 2000 BC. In 2000 BC the Mayan’s noticed that the bulb and root of water lilies gave a narcotic feeling, as well as acted as an aphrodisiac and partial hallucinogen.1 Apomorphine belongs to a class of molecules called aporphines which are present in water lilies, more specifically in Nymphaea caerulea and Nymphaea ampla.1 While mild effects were shown in parts of water lilies, scientists wanted to know what exactly caused these effects. The compounds were isolated and tested to determine that apomorphine was the most active ingredient. The concentration of apomorphine was so low in the plants that isolation was impractical so a synthesis was designed to investigate the properties of apomorphine further; leading to apomorphine being used for Parkinson’s disease, erectile dysfunction, and most recently Alzheimer disease.
The humanity has been using alkaloids-containing extracts since ancient times. For example, there are reports on the use of opium since 3,400 BC. Opium (from Papaver somniferum) exudate is rich in tetrahydrobenzylisoquinoline alkaloids, as (5), codeine (6), and papaverine (7) (ref). Morphine is a potent analgesic and narcotic extensively used to treat both acute and chronic severe pain (Bercovitch et al., 1999). South American Indians have been using coca leaves (Erytrothroxylon coca; Erythroxylaceae) for over 4,000 years (ref), as a stimulant and energy source. Coca is known for its psychoactive alkaloid cocaine (8), whose medicinal use as tonic, for digestive disorders, weakness, aphrodisiac, in the treatment of asthma, alcohol and morphine
Although perhaps the most well known hormones of the adrenal glands, Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (although technically a neurotransmitter) have quite a complicated method of entering their target cells, which are actually all over the body. The variety of organs that accept Epinephrine from the bloodstream have one of the five different receptors on their cell surface, which are also called adrenergic receptors, that determine the response from the different messengers inside the cell (Feher 2012), such as G proteins, and thus the responding action (Goldstein 2008). The \alpha1 receptor is in the heart and liver, vascular smooth muscle, and pupillary dilator muscle (pupil), and is responsible for smooth muscle contraction as the binded receptor activates phospholipase C on the cells surface membrane, cleaving phosphatidyl inositol biphosphate, and releasing IP3 and diacylglycerol; the IP3 binds to receptors on the endoplasmic reticulum and results in an increased cytoplasmic Calcium concentration (Feher 2012). The \alpha2 receptors result in a response of nerve terminal inhibition and smooth muscle contraction by inhibiting adenylyl cyclase, and therefore reduce cytoplasmic cAMP (Feher 2012). However, the three receptors are 'G-coupled receptors' that stimulate adenylyl cyclase and result in
Worldwide, there exists an ever growing and expanding market for illegal recreational narcotics. Of those drugs, in accordance to virtually every source and study, heroin is described as the most addictive and habit forming. The main derivative of heroin is the poppy seed commonly indigenous to Central America. Poppy seed derivatives, like heroin and methadone are categorized as types of opioids. Any drug which is qualified as an opioid must act upon the nervous system in order to relieve pain and supply an euphoric feeling to the user. These drugs are the most commonly prescribed and widely consumed form of medication in regards to chronic pain relief, despite the well know fact that they are considered to be the most hazardous and
The earliest, most credible account of drug use by humans dates back between 50,000 – 60,000 B.C., in which there is a notion that Neanderthals of the time used the psychoactive stimulant, Ephedra, as evidenced by a burial site in Iraq, where pollen remains of the herbal drug were found. There is contradictory evidence which states the remains of the ephedra may have come from rodents in the area, who are known to burrow and store seeds and flowers in their burrows, making it impossible to come to a concrete conclusion on whether these people did use the drug. Nevertheless, prospectors believe that if these people actually took use of the drug, that it may have been for medicinal, spiritual, and/or entheogenic ritualistic purposes, as the effects of the ephedra have euphoric, amphetaminic, and sympathomimetic (mimics the effects of neurotransmitter substances, such as adrenaline and dopemine)
Phenylephrine is mostly used fornasal congestion, and also may be used useful in increase B.P.
Consider, each chiral structure has its own pharmacological profile, and therefore, posses different properties and physiological effects on the human body. Further examination and extensive studies show that the pharmaceutical active structure is (-)-Morphine[6]. The essential difference between these two structures is the placement of the piperidine ring (D) between the C9 or C10 and C12 and C13. For example, if ring D is attached on C9 and C13, it will yield
Introduction Tea contains cellulose, tannins, and caffeine. A tea leaf can contain up to 5% caffeine. Caffeine has a higher solubility in boiling water (67.0 g /100 g solvent) than in water at room temperature (2.26 g / 100 g solvent). Boiling removes cellulose. Caffeine is four times more soluble in dichloromethane (8.45 g /100 g solvent) at room temperature than water.
Xanthine and its derivatives belong to the class of purine alkaloids. They are natural bases having nitrogen atoms in molecular structure and they have strong physiological effect on human and animal organisms. Alkyl-xanthines represent a major class of adenosine receptor agonist/antagonist, with theophylline and caffeine as prototypes. Xanthines exert bronchospasmolytic, neuroprotectant, anti-diabetic, mono-amine oxidase modulator and also cardiac effects via various mechanisms. Xanthine and its derivatives are usually anti-inflammatory and are also used in the treatment of asthma. The other therapeutic areas of xanthine are cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, at heart, as vascular agents due to diuretic effect and also possess excellent CNS-penetration
Coca is native to western South American is one of only four cultivated plants in the Erthroxylacease family. The plant is grown in mass in the following six: countries Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru; however, it is illegal to cultivate the crop in these countries. (Figure 1) The crop flourishes in warm climates and usually under the direction of a large Drug Cartel. The coca plant has been a traditional stimulant similar to coffee in many Andean cultures. (Stolberg, 2011) “The alkaloid content of coca leaves is relatively low, between 0.25% and 0.77%.” (Juan C. Negrete, 1978). Since the coca plant has been around for thousands of years, it’s important to understand the history of the plant and how it has been used. With medical science advancement it is also essential we understand and track the physical effects of the plant has on the human body. Finally, we must take into account what the medical field is reporting with regard to the Coca plant.
It was found that kratom is made up of more than 20 alkaloids. The exact composition depends on the geography where the plant was grown. The most important alkaloids that cause the opioid-like analgesic activity are mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine since they bind with the opioid receptors.. Mitragynine is the most abundant alkaloid in kratom. 7-hydroxymitragynine is a minor component that is more potent and can penetrate blood brain barrier more than mitragynine. It is believed that 7-hydroxymitragynine is 13-fold more potent than morphine. Mitragynine was first isolated 87 years ago and scientists are still not able to totally synthesize it in the laboratory. All the mitragynine used by individuals or researchers is extracted from the leaves of the Mitragyna speciosa plant.
For instance, morphine and nicotine are both alkaloids from plants (poppies and tobacco, respectively). Alkaloids are even the subject of study for use in easing depression, and can be part of cancer treatment.