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● Anatomy : study of bodily structures ● Physiology : study of body’s processes & functions Right Upper Quandrant (Liver/Gallbladder) Left Upper Quadrant (Stomach/Spleen) Right Lower Quadrant (Small Intestine/Appendix) Left Lower Quadrant (Urinary) 18. Define: Monomer, polymer ● Monomer = atoms or small molecules that bond together to form more complex structures such as polymers; 4 types: sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and nucleotides . Fa.Aa.N.S ● Polymer = materials made of long, repeating chains of molecules ● List & give examples of the following macromolecules in the body: Macromolecule Examples of polymers in the Body Carbohydrates Sugars, fibers & starches (SFS) Proteins antibodies, contractile proteins, enzymes, hormonal proteins, structural proteins, storage proteins, and transport proteins Nucleotides DNA, RNA, ATP, NADP+ 20. Lipids ● Describe the general structure of: ○ Fatty acids straight chain of an even number of carbon atoms, with hydrogen atoms along the length of the chain and at one end of the chain and a carboxyl group (―COOH) at the other end; 3 types: ○ Glycerides esters formed from glycerol reacting with fatty acids, generally hydrophobic

○ Steroids lipid compound composed of four hydrocarbon rings bonded to a variety of other atoms and molecules ○ Phospholipids hydrophobic tails, containing the neutral fatty acids which acts as barrier from keeping stuff from freely crossing membrane, and hydrophilic heads, containing the charged phosphate groups and nitrogen atom which face both in and outside cell. ○ Glycolipids composed of a carbohydrate unit linked to a single or multiple fatty acid(s) Phospholipid Similarities Differences Phospholipids - Lipids - Glycerol backbone - Triglycerides are made of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid hydrocarbon chains. Phospholipids have a phosphate group and only have 2 fatty acid hydrocarbon chains. - Diff chemical structures Fatty acids Triglycerides Amino Acids & Proteins ● Describe how peptide bonds are formed: a covalent bond between two amino acids that forms by dehydration synthesis. ● Define: ○ Primary: sequence of amino acids of which it is made ○ Secondary: alpha helix; a strand of amino acids that maintain a stable spiral shape with the help of hydrogen bonds, which create bridges between different regions of the same strand ○ Tertiary: folded into 3 dimensional shape; amino acids that had been very distant in the primary chain can be brought quite close via hydrogen bonds or, in proteins containing cysteine, via disulfide bonds. A disulfide bond is a covalent bond between sulfur atoms in a polypeptide. ○ Quaternary structure: Often, two or more separate polypeptides bond to form an even larger protein (ex. Hemoglobin (globular protein) + Collagen (fibrous protein)) ● ID in Openstax Figure 2.13: ○ Enzyme: catalyst composed of protein or ribonucleic acid (RNA),

○ Peripheral membrane proteins attached to the surface of the bimolecular lipid layer ○ Integral membrane proteins embedded in the whole bilayer. Integral proteins have hydrophobic and hydrophilic areas whereas peripheral proteins do not. ○ Glycolipids hydrophobic lipid tail and one or more hydrophilic sugar groups linked by a glycosidic (covalent) bond; structural role to maintain membrane stability but also facilitates cell-cell communication acting as receptors, anchors for proteins and regulators of signal transduction ○ Glycoproteins are large and diverse group of proteins to which one or more sugar molecules, known as oligosaccharides, have been attached through covalent bonding. Attached to polypeptide chains 2. Describe & give general functions of the following: ○ Anchor ○ Receptor protein molecule that contains a binding site for another specific molecule (called a ligand) ○ Channel proteins are membrane-spanning protein that has an inner pore which allows the passage of one or more substances; less selective than carrier proteins, and usually mildly discriminate between their cargo based on size and charge. ○ Carrier proteins are more selective, often only allowing one particular type of molecule to cross. Hypertonic H2O goes out Hypotonic h2O come in Definition Example (from lectures) Symport Also known as cotransport. Two substances move in the same direction at the same time Sodium glucose linked transporter (SGLT) Sodium moves in with glucose in same direction Antiport Also known as countertransport, One substance moves in while another moves out sodium calcium exchanger Facilitated Diffusion High → Low concentration, Glucose moving into

Involves particles that cannot pass through a membrane by themselves. Transport proteins allow movement cell; channel protein exchanges glucose into cell ● Describe the workings of the sodium potassium pump The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium ions out of and potassium ions into the cell. This pump is powered by ATP. For each ATP that is broken down, 3 sodium ions move out and 2 potassium ions move in. ● vesicular transport and categorize them as either importing or exporting things into/from the cell process of a cell exporting material; exocytosis ● Define: ○ Vesicle basic tool used by the cell for organizing cellular substances . Vesicles are involved in metabolism, transport, buoyancy control, and enzyme storage. They can also act as chemical reaction chambers . ○ Endocytosis is the process wherein the materials move into the cell rather than are engulfed by the cell. ■ Endocytosis is usually subdivided into pinocytosis and phagocytosis. ● Pinocytosis endocytosis of fluid ● Phagocytosis endocytosis of large particles ○ Exocytosis is the process of moving materials from within a cell to the exterior of the cell . This process requires energy. 14. Explain the process of DNA replication Initiation, elongation, termination Initiation: two strands are separated ELongation: Each strand becomes a template Termination: completion, original strands bind to new strands ● Describe what RNA polymerase is and its role enzyme that unwinds DNA and then adds new nucleotides to a growing strand of RNA for the transcription phase of protein synthesis 1. List the phases of mitosis in order prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase and cytokinesis. (PPMAT+C) 1. Define: ● Regeneration: is the addition of new cells of the same type as the ones that were injured ● Differentiation: unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function to perform certain tasks in the body.

○ forms an intercellular passageway between the membranes of adjacent cells to facilitate the movement of small molecules and ions between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells. ○ allow electrical and metabolic coupling of adjacent cells ■ coordinates function in large groups of cells. ● Anchoring Junction ○ includes several types of cell junctions that help stabilize epithelial tissues. Anchoring ○ common on the lateral and basal surfaces ○ Provide strong and flexible connections ○ three types of anchoring junctions: desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and adherens. ● Describe properties of transitional epithelia ○ Example of where it is found: lining the structures of the urinary system ● Locate where stem cells are likely to be found in stratified epithelial tissues stratum basale layer ● Sort & arrange the epidermis layers from superficial to deep: CLGSB Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale. ● Compare properties of different types of epithelia, including ○ Diffusion across their layers: the thinner, the easier to diffuse. The thicker, the more cells it can hold. ○ Volume and thickness: squamous are thin but wide, cuboidal are pretty even regarding length and width, and columnar are thin and tall. ● Exocrine gland: secretions leave through a duct that opens directly, or indirectly, to the external environment (exo- = “outside”). unicellular or multicellular; release their contents through a duct that leads to the epithelial surface. (Mucous, sweat, saliva, and breast milk) ● Endocrine gland ductless gland that releases secretions directly into surrounding tissues and fluids (endo- = “inside”,; secretes hormones ● Merocrine: exocytosis (ex salivary gland); cell remains in tact ● Apocrine: apical parts of glands pinch off and becomes part of secretion (ex mammary) ● Holocrine: basal side constantly dividing and regenerating; apical side dies off entirely and forms secretions (ex hair) ● Mucous: thick, viscous carb-rich; gel like & moist. Structure is Stratified squamous epithelium; function is to secrete mucus. It's functional also is to keep the membrane moist & lubricant

● Serous watery, serous solutions; protein rich. Structure is Simple squamous epithelium. Function: allows membranes to slide past each other without friction as it secretes a thin watery serous fluid. ● Cutaneous skin; Stratified squamous epithelium.; ● Synovial membranes It consists of a superficial or border intimal layer, composed of one to four layers of fibroblastic and macrophagic synoviocytes, and a deep layer. It is vascularized and innervated. It produces the articular fluid that lubricates and nourishes the avascular cartilage and regulates pressure and local temperature. ● Give examples of where each of those membranes can be found mucous:the mouth, nose, eyelids, trachea (windpipe) and lungs, stomach and intestines, and the ureters, ● Define connective tissue proper composed of cells & extracellular matrix; includes: loose connective tissue (also called areolar) and dense (irregular) connective tissue. ● Describe functions & properties of connective tissue cells based on OpenStax Ch 4 ● Describe what mesenchymal cells are and their function in development & repair of multipotent stem cells found in bone marrow that are important for making and repairing skeletal tissues(cartilage, bone and the fat found in bone marrow). predominantly convert into lipid-accumulating fat cells. ● Describe the functions of fibroblasts & fibrocytes in connective tissues fibroblasts: supports and connects other tissues or organs in the body. ○ Fibroblasts secrete collagen ○ Fibrocytes: produce collagen ● Describe the general functions of macrophages & describe the process of phagocytosis ○ activating the immune system when they encounter antigens. They destroy dead or dying self cells. They engulf foreign particles. ○ PHAGOCYTOSIS ← HERE. cell takes in a large particle. ● Describe the functions of mast cells & the effects of histamine on the body mast cells contribute to homeostasis in the immune system. They serve as a first line of defense against antigens entering the body due to their location in the skin and mucosa. Histamine helps your body get rid of something that's bothering you ● For neutrophils (microphages), lymphocytes & plasma cells, know that they are immune cells Describe what connective tissue protein fibers, and ground substance are and their relation to a connective tissue’s (extracellular) matrix ● Describe & compare general properties of collagen, reticular & elastic fibers based on OpenStax Ch 4 ○ Collagen fiber is made from fibrous protein subunits linked together to form a long and straight fiber. Collagen fibers, while flexible, have great tensile strength, resist stretching, and give ligaments and tendons their characteristic resilience and strength. These fibers hold connective tissues together. ○ Elastic fiber contains the protein elastin along with lesser amounts of other proteins and glycoproteins. The main property of elastin is that after being

● Compare the structure of dense regular vs dense irregular connective tissue dense looks more organized (parallel to one another), dense irregular direction of fibers is random. ● Describe what tendons & ligaments are made of and what types of tissues they connect Tendon and ligament are dense, fibrous connective tissues that connect muscle and bone or bone and bone (dense connective tissue proper); made up of type I collagen fibers surrounded by a mesh of loose connective tissue. Describe & compare types of cartilage: ● Hyaline: most common type in body; strong and flexible also found in rib cage and nose and covers bones. translucent cartilage found on many joint surfaces; helps your bones move smoothly past each other in your joints ● Elastic yellow in appearance, is more pliable than the other two forms because it contains elastic fibers in addition to collagen; provides strength and flexibility ● Fibrocartilage Act as a cushion by providing the required resilience to the joints to bear the compressive forces. Very tough. As the supporting structure of tendons and ligaments joining the bone. Describe general properties of fluid connective tissues (keep it limited to Ch. 4 for this unit) specialized cells that circulate in a watery fluid containing salts, nutrients, and dissolved proteins ● List & describe the types of formed elements in blood & state the extracellular matrix of blood and its general composition: red blood cells (erythrocytes) white blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets; ECM: PLASMAh ● Justify whether blood & lymph are classified as connective tissue or not: yes b/c they are a watery matrix of dissolved proteins and carry formed elements. Nervous Tissue 1. Describe & compare general properties of neurons & neuroglia listed in Ch. 4 ● Neurons spread information via electrochemical impulses (action potential), which release chemical signals ● Neuroglia supports neurons.

nucleus, dendrites & axon 3 Main Layers of Integument: Subregions/Strata of each layer: Function of each layer Epidermis C,L,G,S,B stratum corneum (the most superficial portion of the epidermis), stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale (the deepest portion of the epidermis) , protects underlying tissues, Dermis papillary and reticular Sensory (connective tissue, blood vessels, hair) Hypodermis/subcutaneous Layer fat cells & connective tissue connect the skin to the underlying fascia (fibrous tissue) of the bones and muscles. 5. Describe the function of basal cells in maintaining the epidermis produce keratinocytes 6. ID which layer epidermal layer dies off and sheds keratinocytes corneum 7. Describe what keratinocytes are a cell that manufactures and stores the protein keratin. 9. Describe the properties of keratin in the skin: intracellular fibrous protein that gives hair, nails, and skin their hardness and water-resistant properties. 1. Locate where melanocytes are most abundant in the skin basale

○ Sebaceous: secrete oils that lubricate and protect the skin and hair; secrete sebum . They are holocrine glands and are destroyed after releasing their contents. i. Sebum: a mixture of lipids which are secreted onto the skin surface; lubricated and prevent water loss. ○ Apocrine: associated with hair follicles in densely hairy areas(armpits and genitals) apocrine sweat includes organic compounds that make the sweat thicker and subject to bacterial decomposition (BO) . The release of this sweat is under both nervous and hormonal control. 3. Describe where sweat glands, sebaceous glands & sebum, and apocrine glands can be found. ○ Eccrine (sweat): found all over the skin’s surface , but are especially abundant on the palms of the hand, the soles of the feet, and the forehead. They are coiled glands lying deep in the dermis. ○ Sebaceous: connected to hair follicles i. Sebum: found within sebaceous glands ○ Apocrine: underneath hair follicles ; lie deeper in the dermis than eccrine, sometimes even reaching the hypodermis, with the duct normally emptying into the hair follicle. 4. Locate the mammary glands, describe how they produce secretions, and state what they secrete glands located inside the breast that secrete milk. Prolactin stimulates the mammary glands to produce breast milk. ● Identify 6 major hair substructures and associated structures: ○ Shaft: part of hair that is above the skin (3 parts: medulla, cortex & cuticle) ■ Medulla : central core of the hair ■ Cortex : middle of hair, elongated cells containing pigment in dark hair, ■ Cuticle outer layer of thin hard, keratinized cells ○ Matrix: (located in bulb) layer of basal cells; produces new hair cells ○ papilla (located in bulb) contains connective tissue and blood vessels nourishing the hair ○ Hair Follicle composed of internal & external root sheath ■ Internal Root sheath: surround the root of the growing hair and extend just up to the hair shaft; anchors hair in place ■ External Root Sheath: encloses the hair root ○ root hair plexus: surrounds base of hair follicle; touch ○ arrector pili smooth muscle that is activated in response to external stimuli that pull on hair follicles and make the hair “stand up” ● Describe the process of hair growth and development ○ (1) anagen: cells divide rapidly at the root of the hair, pushing the hair shaft up and out. lasts 2-7 years ○ (2) catagen: marks a transition from the hair follicle’s active growth. lasts 2-3 weeks.

○ (3) telogen: hair follicle is at rest and no new growth occurs. At the end of this phase, which lasts about 2 to 4 months, another anagen phase begins. The basal cells in the hair matrix then produce a new hair follicle, which pushes the old hair out as the growth cycle repeats itself. ● Identify major nail substructures: ○ Body main keratinous plate that forms the nail ○ Bed layer of epidermis upon which the nail body forms ○ Root part of the nail that is lodged deep in the epidermis from which the nail grows ○ proximal folds: The skin bordering the lower end of the nail ○ lateral folds overlaps the nail on the sides, helping to anchor the nail body. ■ Grooves Vertical nail ridges extend from the cuticle to the tip of the nail ○ cuticle (eponychium) fold of epithelium that extends over the nail bed, also called the eponychium ○ lunula basal part of the nail body that consists of a crescent-shaped layer of thick epithelium ● Calculate approximate burn percentages based on the “Rule of nines” in adults (OpenStax Figure 5.23) ● 9,9,3,1,18

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