cs180_hw2-final

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CS 180 HW2 Arjun Raj Loomba 605809574 Problem 1 (a) We define a graph G ⇒ ∃ tree, back/forward, and cross edges. DFS cannot result in cross-edges and only in back/forward edges, and tree edges, which we will analyse. As- sume V is the set of all nodes, and E is a set of all edges in G .We establish that u ⇝ v and v , v ⇝ u ∀ ( u, v ) ∈ V . To prove that if removing an edge e ∈ E that connects the vertices u and v will disconnect the graph, we first prove that removing a back-edge will not disconnect the graph. Then, we prove that removing a tree-edge will disconnect the graph. In a situation where there are multiple subtrees of v that are represented by the set S where v ⇝ S and ∃ multiple back-edges from S to u or any other ancestor of u, then even if edge e , which in this case is a back-edge is removed, there still remains other back-edges which will connect the graph. This proves by contradiction that it can’t be a back-edge. The same would hold for a case with forward edges. Since this is DFS on an undirected graph ∄ any cross-edge, because it would aldready be traversed, therefore we only traverse through descendants and ancestors of u . This leaves only tree-edges, where if we remove a tree edge e , and ∄ forward/backward edges from u ⇝ k ⇝ v , then DFS will not traverse through all ancestors, and descendants. In this case, the above statement of removing edge e disconnecting the graph if it’s a tree edge is True (b) Assuming we have an undirected connected Graph ( V , E ) ∈ G , we prove that removing 2 nodes from any G wouldn’t disconnect G . We divide all undirected graphs into 2 categories: Cyclic and Acyclic. Trees: All acyclic connected graphs : In this case, an undirected graph G forms a tree, which is defined as a connected, acyclic, undirected graph. This also includes other seemingly different acyclic graphs, such as a complete bipartite graph or a star. In all such cases, ∃ more than 1 node with degree equal to 1. If both such nodes are removed then the graph’s connectivity is unaffected. These nodes will either have indegree = 0 or outdegree = 0. Either, there will be ≥ 2 nodes that don’t have any descendants (like a conventional binary tree or a star) or ∃ a single node with no ancestors and another node with no descendants. This proves that no acyclic, undirected graph G is disconnected if 2 specific nodes are removed. All other graphs such as Cyclic, connected graphs: In this case, an undirected graph has a cycle if ∃ a path that starts and ends at the same node ⇒ ( v 1 , v 2 , ..., v n − 1 , v n ) : v n = v 1 Using BFS (Breath First Search), we can convert the cyclic graph into a BFS tree. This BFS tree structure can now employee above case for Trees: All acyclic connected graphs . There’s also another proof if each node in our cycle has degree 2. Removing the 2 nodes that are adjacent in the cycle G ∗ will not disconnect the graph. In the above example, this implies removing node v n − 1 and v 1 = v n , will still leave the graph connected. Since proven for all cases of possible undirected graphs, the statement is True 1

CS 180 HW2 Arjun Raj Loomba 605809574 (c) Assume that a graph G is not connected, for a solution with proof by contradiction, to prove that ∀ v ∈ V (set of all Nodes in the graph), if deg ( n ) ≥ n 2 , then G is connected. Assuming that G is not connected and it consists of more than 1 connected component C i : i ∈ (1 , 2 , ..., n − 1 , n ): C = { C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , ..., C n } For our proof, we can consider only 2 connected components, C 1 , C 2 : ( C 1 , C 2 ) ⊆ G and | C 1 | ≤ | C 2 | . This implies that C 1 is the smallest connected component ⇒ | C 1 | ≤ n 2 . Let’s assume that we have a node u : u ∈ C 1 . Then even in the best case, where all other nodes in C 1 are connected to u , deg ( u ) is | C 1 |− 1. In all cases: | C 1 | − 1 < n 2 ⇒ | C 1 | − 1 ≤ n 2 − 1 ⇒ n 2 − 1 < n 2 Since u can’t possibly have a degree of n 2 , then every node doesn’t have a degree n 2 , if the graph G is not connected. Therefore, by contradiction, if deg ( u ) ≥ n 2 then it has to be connected. Therefore, the given statement is True 2

CS 180 HW2 Arjun Raj Loomba 605809574 Problem 2 (a) A min heap is typically used to discern the minimum value in a given set of num- bers. In this case, however, we’re tasked to find the K th smallest value without removing it. Assuming that our algorithm is defined as a class, then upon initializing this class into an object, the value of k is defined to start with. We assume that the set S with values from 0 , 1 , ..., n is aldready in sorted order. Data Structure Construction : Based on the value of K , our data-structure, is a max- heap and an array. The max-heap will contain all values from (1 st , 2 nd , ..., ( k − 1) st ) < k th , and will be heapified when the class is initiated based on the value of k (i.e. the root node is the k th node). All remaining values can be stored in an array with values from k + 1 , k + 2 , ..., n − 1 , n . The K th smallest value becomes the largest value, i.e. the head-node of the heap. Therefore, there may be operations on the heap in O ( logK ) time. Since the K th smallest element is the root node of the heap, the function Find Kmin will return the head/root node of the heap, which is the K th smallest value in the set. Since O (1), which is the time complexity of accessing the root node, as we point to the root node to begin with: O (1) = O ( logK ). If we wish to insert a value into our new data-structure in log ( k ) time, then there are two different cases. Let’s assume, we wish to insert a value: v . First, we must check whether v ≥ k min or is v < k min : • v ≥ K min , then our new value v is pushed onto the end of of our array in O (1) = O ( logK ) time. • v < K min , then v is added, as a leaf node to the leftmost empty position on the heap. Then the max-heap is heapified up, where key ( w ), which is assumed as the value associated with the parent node must be ≥ key ( v ) Since there are k elements to deal with, this algorithm must be completed in O ( logK ) time. It’s important to note that because the total number of nodes must equal k in the heap to preserve O ( logK ) time. Therefore, the current K th smallest value node will be popped in O (1) time and pushed onto the array, and a new k t h smallest value will be determined. O ( logK + 1) = O ( logK ), which is also valid. (b) In part (a) , a max-heap and an array is employed, with an array. However, to support pop() functionality, the data structure implementation must be partially different. Data Structure Construction: A max-heap like (a), that contains all values from (1 st , 2 nd , ..., ( k − 1) st ) < k th . For the remaining values there’s a min-heap ∀ ( k + 1) st < ( k + 2) nd , ..., ( n − 1) st , n th The min-heap is essential for the pop() operation which is explained in the list below. And replaces the array in (a) 3

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