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Chapter 4: International history of the twentieth century
Modern Total War: The First World War
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Debates on the Origins:
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The origins of the First World War have been a subject of extensive debate
among historians and scholars. The central question revolves around whether the German government bore the primary responsibility for the outbreak of the war or whether a constellation of more complex, systemic factors led to the conflict. ●
Characteristics of the War:
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Marking a departure from previous conflicts, the First World War is recognized as the first modern, industrialized total war. This war saw an unprecedented mobilization of entire populations and economies alongside military forces, driven by the capabilities of industrial technology. The mobilization scale, facilitated by advancements such as steam-powered ships and railways, allowed for the sustenance and movement of massive armies over considerable distances, demonstrating
the totalizing nature of the war. Germany, for example, mobilized over 10 million individuals for its armed forces during this conflict, underscoring the extensive reach and impact of the war efforts.( first world war was the first industrilized war we had which allowed technologies to be used that helped run the war)
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Aftermath and the Treaty of Versailles:
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The Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which concluded the war, has been widely criticized for its failure to effectively address the underlying issues of European security. The treaty imposed severe reparations on Germany, aiming to hold it accountable for the war, but in doing so, it inadvertently laid the groundwork for further grievance and instability within the European state system. ●
Moreover, the principle of self-determination, which was championed in the aftermath of the war, notably did not extend to the European colonial empires. This omission highlighted the inconsistencies in the application of self-determination principles and contributed to the perpetuation of imperialistic structures, thereby sowing seeds for future conflicts.( the treaty of versailles which imposed reparations on germany did not work and ultimately laid the groundwork for the second war.( the principle of
self determination was a focus but was not extended to eurpopean colonial empires)
Modern Total War: The Second World War
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Rise of Hitler and European Political Inertia:
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The ascent of Hitler and the Nazi regime presented existential threats to European stability, against which political leaders showed a notable lack of will and capability to counteract effectively. This inability contributed significantly to the outbreak of the Second World War, illustrating a catastrophic failure of diplomacy and peacekeeping efforts.( eurpose did not do a good job with the rise of hitles which led to world war 2)
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Extension to Total Warfare:
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The German invasion of the Soviet Union marked a pivotal transition from limited military engagements to a broader and more brutal conflict, emblematic of total warfare. This expansion not only extended the war's geographical and operational scope but also facilitated an unprecedented alliance between the Soviet Union and the United States, uniting these powers against a common adversary.( german invasion of the soviet union intensified the conflict making it more brutal)
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Impact of Pearl Harbor:
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The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was a critical juncture that led to the
United States' entry into the European theatre of war, compelling Germany to fight on two fronts once again. This strategic blunder by the Axis powers significantly altered the war's dynamics, leading to a broader coalition against them.( the axis powers deciding to attack pearl harbor brought america into the war and made the axis powers in danger)
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Debate on the Atomic Bomb:
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The use of the atomic bomb in 1945 remains a subject of intense debate, concerning its necessity and the ethical implications of its deployment against civilian targets in Japan. This decision has been scrutinized for its humanitarian and strategic ramifications, with opinions divided on its justification.( use of the bomb on hiroshima is up for debate on its moral justificatio)
End of Empire
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Principle of Self-Determination:
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Post-World War II, the principle of self-determination emerged as a pivotal doctrine in international politics, driving the decolonization process. This shift was influenced by the recognition that colonial subjects deserved the
right to self-governance and political autonomy.( after ww2 the principle of
self determination emerged as a pivotal doctorine driving the process of decolonization)
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Factors Influencing Decolonization:
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Decolonization was shaped by various factors, including the attitudes of colonial powers towards relinquishing control, the ideologies and strategies of anti-imperialist movements, the role of external powers in supporting or opposing decolonization efforts, and the impact of key figures such as George Marshall.
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Diverse European Responses:
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Post-1945, European powers exhibited differing stances on decolonization, with some nations more willing than others to grant independence to their colonies. This period saw a mix of peaceful transitions and revolutionary wars, underscoring the complexity and diversity of decolonization processes.( this period of decolonization saw a
mix of nations granting independence and revolutions happening etc)
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Cold War Dynamics:
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The Cold War context significantly influenced the decolonization process, with superpower rivalries often exacerbating conflicts in newly independent states. Independence and national liberation movements in some regions became entangled with broader geopolitical strategies, leading to varied outcomes and ongoing disputes.
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Success of Decolonization:
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The success of decolonization is subject to interpretation, contingent upon one's perspective. While it marked the end of formal European empires and the emergence of new nation-states, the legacy of colonialism continues to affect political, economic, and social dynamics globally.( the siccess of decolonization is a hitly contested topic)
European decolonization (1945–80)
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Cold War
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Origins and Responsibilities:
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The Cold War, following closely on the heels of World War II, represented a
period of intense geopolitical tension between the Western allies, led by the United States, and the Soviet Union along with its allies. Debates continue regarding the precise origins and the main actors responsible for the escalation of the Cold War. Some historians emphasize the role of atomic weapons in the conflict's genesis, while others highlight ideological, strategic, and economic factors as central to understanding the mutual hostility between the superpowers.( the cold war represented a
conflict bewtwween the US and its allies and the soviet uniona nd its allies)
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Phases of the Cold War:
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The Cold War experienced various phases, each marked by shifting levels of tension and confrontation:
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1945–53: The onset characterized by the formation of opposing blocs and initial confrontations.
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1953–69: A period marked by conflict, confrontation, and occasional compromise.
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1969–79: The era of détente, reflecting a temporary easing of tensions.
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1979–86: Often referred to as 'the second cold war', this phase saw
renewed tensions and hostility.
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Impact on Global Conflicts:
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Cold War dynamics exacerbated some regional and civil wars by drawing in superpower support for opposing sides, potentially prolonging conflicts.
However, the overarching threat of escalation into a direct superpower conflict may have also acted as a deterrent in some instances, preventing further escalation or even the outbreak of new conflicts.( war between 2 superpowers aced as a detterent to rising conflict)
Cold War: Nuclear Weapons
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Significance of Nuclear Weapons:
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Nuclear weapons played a pivotal role in the Cold War, serving both as tools of deterrence and as focal points for arms control agreements. The threat of nuclear annihilation shaped the defense and foreign policies of both the United States and the Soviet Union, influencing their strategic calculations and international postures.( threat of nuclar war had a big effect on the cold war serving as a tool for detterence)
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Arms Control Agreements:
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Efforts to limit and control the growth of nuclear arsenals were significant aspects of US–USSR relations. Treaties such as the Partial Test Ban Treaty and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty represented important steps towards managing the nuclear arms race and reducing the risk of nuclear war.
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Legacy and International Crises:
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Despite the end of the Cold War, nuclear weapons remain a central element of international security concerns. Various crises during the Cold War era, including the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and others, highlighted the acute risk of nuclear war. These events continue to serve as crucial case studies for understanding the dynamics of nuclear deterrence and the importance of arms control.( despite the end of the cold war, nuclear weapons remains an international security concern)
Opposing Opinions: During the cold war, the benefits of nuclear weapons outweighed their costs and risks
For: Benefits Outweighed Costs and Risks
Nuclear Deterrence Kept the Peace: Advocates for nuclear weapons argue that their existence prevented direct military conflict between the superpowers. The principle of deterrence—the idea that the threat of mutual destruction would prevent either side from actually using nuclear weapons—maintained peace and prevented a potential World War III.
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) Provided Stability: The MAD doctrine, which posited that any nuclear attack by one superpower would result in the complete annihilation of both the attacker and the defender, created a precarious but real form of stability. Both sides were deterred from starting a nuclear conflict due to the guarantee of their own destruction.
The Bomb Was Cheap: Compared to the enormous costs associated with conventional military forces, nuclear weapons were seen as a cost-effective means of achieving a strong defense posture. The deterrent effect of a nuclear arsenal allowed for smaller conventional forces, potentially saving money in defense budgets.
Cold War Arms Agreements: Arms control agreements, such as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, helped to manage and reduce the risks and costs associated with the nuclear arms race. These agreements limited the number and types of nuclear weapons, reducing the likelihood of an accidental or deliberate nuclear war.
Against: Costs and Risks Outweighed Benefits
Increased East-West Tensions: Critics argue that nuclear weapons exacerbated tensions between the Eastern and Western blocs, creating a climate of fear and suspicion. The arms race led to a security dilemma, where each side's efforts to increase its security led the other side to feel less secure and more likely to escalate its own military capabilities.
Arms Control Did Not Lead to Disarmament: Despite arms control efforts, the nuclear arsenals of both superpowers grew to staggering numbers, far beyond what was necessary for deterrence. These agreements often failed to achieve their ultimate goal of disarmament and instead legitimized the possession of nuclear weapons.
Risk of Inadvertent Nuclear War: The history of the Cold War includes several nuclear
crises, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, where misunderstandings or miscalculations could have led to nuclear war. The reliance on fallible human judgment and technology in managing nuclear arsenals posed a significant risk of an accidental or inadvertent nuclear conflict.
Environmental Implications: Nuclear weapons testing and potential nuclear warfare carry severe environmental and health risks. Nuclear fallout from testing has had
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long-lasting effects on the environment and human health, raising ethical and sustainability concerns about the use of nuclear weapons.
Case Study 4.1: Fidel Castro
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Iconic Leadership:
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Fidel Castro emerged as a seminal figure in the Cold War era, embodying the ideological and political shifts that characterized the period. His embrace of Marxism-Leninism marked a significant turn in Cuba's international relations, aligning closely with Moscow as relations with the United States deteriorated.
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US-Cuba Tensions:
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The United States' efforts to dislodge Castro from power were multifaceted, including CIA assassination attempts and the infamous Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, which ended in failure and further solidified Castro's position.
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Cuban Missile Crisis:
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The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis stands as a watershed moment in Cold War history, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war. Castro's role in this crisis, particularly his communications with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, highlighted the complex interplay of national interests and global strategies during the Cold War.
Case Study 4.2: The City of Berlin 1945–89
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Post-War Division:
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After World War II, Berlin found itself at the heart of the Cold War's ideological divide, partitioned among the victorious allies despite its location deep within Soviet-controlled East Germany. This division set the stage for several crises, risking direct military confrontation between East and West.
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Berlin Blockade and Airlift:
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The first major Cold War confrontation occurred in 1948 with the Berlin Blockade, where the Soviet Union attempted to gain control over the entire
city by cutting off land access to the Western-held sectors. The West responded with the Berlin Airlift, successfully breaking the blockade and maintaining the city's divided status.
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Easing Tensions and Reunification:
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While the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 marked a high point in Cold War tensions, it also led to a period of coexistence and détente, with the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 symbolizing the physical and ideological divide. Berlin's eventual reunification at the Cold War's end in
1989 symbolized the collapse of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe and the end of the Cold War era.
Chapter 5: From the end of the cold war to a new world dis-order?
The United States: Exploiting the Unipolar ‘Moment’- one power
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Post-Cold War, the US emerged as the dominant global power, significantly influencing international dynamics.( US is global power, significantly influencing international stuff)
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Under President Clinton, a strategic pivot towards economic issues within US foreign policy was observed, reflecting a broader focus on globalization.( under president clinton a focus on us foreign policy geared twards globalization was seen)
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Clinton faced criticism from the right for lacking a "grand strategy" and from the left concerning the extent and impacts of globalization.
After the USSR: Yeltsin to Putin
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The dissolution of the USSR introduced complex challenges, notably economic reforms in the 1990s that, while creating a class of wealthy individuals, exacerbated Russia's economic difficulties.( collapse of soviet union led to new russia with a class of oligarchs and wealth inequality)
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Under Putin, Russia has sought to reassert itself as a "world power," leading to deteriorating relations with the West.( putin has tried to reassert russia as a world power which leads to problems)
Europe: Rise and Decline?
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Europe, especially Germany, benefited from the Cold War's end, which had previously divided the continent.
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The EU faced questions over the future of European integration and challenges such as Brexit and Trump's election, which it has largely navigated successfully.
China in a New Asian Century?
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Asia has seen relative peace and significant prosperity post-Cold War, with China's rise altering regional dynamics and heightening US tensions.( asia is doing well post cold war especially china)
A New Global South?
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The "Third World" political project's collapse has left a complex legacy, including civil wars and state collapses, yet also opportunities for economic integration.
( lsot of southern countries making deevolepement, but there is still alot of problems)
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Countries in the Global South have made significant strides, though development challenges persist.
The Middle East in Turmoil: 9/11, the Arab Spring, and After
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The 9/11 attacks radically transformed US foreign policy and the international landscape.( 9/11 changed US policy)
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US interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan were seen as failures.
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The Arab Spring( rebeliions) brought initial hope but led to widespread disillusionment, with the Syrian crisis exemplifying the region's deep-seated issues.( there is very deep issues in the middle east)
From Obama to Trump to Biden
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Obama aimed to restore the US's soft power, withdraw troops from conflict zones, and adapt to new economic realities, notably in Asia.
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Trump's presidency had a divisive impact domestically and globally, challenging established norms and alliances.
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Biden has sought to unify the US, restore international credibility, and support the
liberal world order, navigating a complex global landscape marked by rising powers and shifting geopolitical dynamics.
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Case Study 5.1: Russia and the West: a ‘new cold war’?
The relationship between Russia and the West, particularly with the United States, has been compared by some to a 'new cold war'. This comparison stems from the growing tensions and confrontations that have characterized their interactions in recent years. Critics of this comparison argue that:
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Russia is not the USSR: The contemporary Russian state lacks the ideological, economic, and military breadth that characterized the Soviet Union.
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Power vs. Ideology: The current friction between Russia and the West is seen more as a struggle for influence and power rather than an ideological battle between communism and capitalism.
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Potential for Direct Conflict: Unlike the original Cold War, where direct military confrontation was largely avoided, there's a concern that the current dynamics do not offer the same guarantees against direct conflict.
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Historical vs. Contemporary Reality: Using the term 'new cold war' might obscure the unique aspects of today's geopolitical landscape, suggesting that historical analogies could be misleading in understanding and addressing contemporary challenges.
Case Study 5.2: Populism, Globalization, and the End of the Liberal Order?
Since the financial crisis of 2008, a distinct form of nationalist or populist politics has gained momentum, challenging the tenets of globalization and the liberal order. This political wave is characterized by:
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Critique of Elites: Populist movements frame their opposition against distant, metropolitan elites whom they accuse of being disconnected from the common people's problems.
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View on Immigration: Immigrants and refugees are often portrayed as threats, contributing to societal and economic insecurity.
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Globalization as a Challenge: The economic aspects of globalization are viewed skeptically, with claims that it undermines national economic security and workers' rights.
Opposing Opinions: The twenty-first century will be Asian
For the Twenty-First Century Being Asian
Rapid GDP Growth: One of the most compelling arguments for the twenty-first century being Asian is the region's impressive economic growth. Asia, led by China and India, has seen its GDP rise swiftly, contributing a growing share to the
global economy. This economic boom has empowered Asian countries, enabling them to exert more influence on the world stage.
Decline of Western-led International Order: There's a perception that the traditional, Western-led international order is diminishing. The United States and Europe have faced various challenges, including economic crises, political polarization, and a perceived retreat from global leadership roles. In contrast, Asian countries, particularly China, have been expanding their global footprint, filling the void left by the West.
China's Assertive Global Role: China's more assertive stance in international affairs is a key indicator of Asia's rising prominence. Through initiatives like the Belt and
Road Initiative (BRI) and its active participation in international organizations, China is shaping global norms, investing in infrastructure across continents, and expanding its geopolitical influence.
Against the Twenty-First Century Being Asian
Adherence to Western Economic Norms: Despite Asia's economic rise, the region largely operates within the framework of Western economic norms and rules. The global financial system, international trade agreements, and legal standards still reflect Western principles, suggesting a continuity of Western influence in the
global economy.
Transatlantic Region's Central Role: The transatlantic region, encompassing the US and Europe, continues to play a central role in global security, the economy, and education. The US dollar remains the world's primary reserve currency, and Western institutions, from universities to multinational corporations, lead in innovation and set global trends.
Diverse and Distinct Asian Identities: Asia is a highly diverse continent, comprising countries with their own distinct cultures, political systems, and historical backgrounds. This diversity, while a source of richness, also means that Asia lacks a unified identity that could coalesce its countries around a common agenda or worldview. The internal differences and rivalries, such as those between China and India or the varied responses to China's regional ambitions, could hinder the continent's ability to act as a unified geopolitical entity.
Chapter 9: Realism
Fundamental ideas
•While realism is a diverse approach, six central concepts are shared by most realist thinkers: Fundamental Ideas of Realism
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Pessimistic View of Human Nature
: Realism starts with a generally pessimistic view of human nature, suggesting that in their quest for power and survival, states, which are composed of human collectives, inherently lean towards conflict and competition rather than cooperation.( first concept of realism is a pessiistic view of human nature. Human states lean towards conflict)
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Power is often defined in terms of resources, military capability, gross national product, and population, which realists believe translates into political influence( second concept is power being defined in terms of resources, militiary capability, population etc, realist believe these factors translate into power)
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Anarchy refers to the lack of a central political authority in the international sphere, which means that states must pursue their own interest to guarantee their survival( third concept is an anarchaich international sphere, with no leaders
leaving states on their own to pursue their own interests)
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Statism means that the sovereign state has supreme authority within its territorial space and operates in an anarchic international system. Statismis the doctrine which argues that states are the main actors in international relations, at
the expense of individuals and international organizations( 4th concept is statism meaning that sovereign states have supreme authority within their territory)
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Survival- The ultimate concern of the state is its own security and survival. However, some realists (for example, Mearsheimer) argue that states act to maximize power beyond what is necessary for their survival( 5th concept is that the ultimate concern of the state is their own survival)
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Self-help refers to the belief that each state is responsible for its own security and survival, as other states cannot be trusted, and international organizations
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are too weak( self help is the 6th concept that states that every state cant rely on others for help and must help themselves)
Theories of International Relations
Realism
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Analytic Units: Realism views sovereign states as the primary actors in an anarchic international system. The theory posits that no overarching authority governs states' interactions, leading to a self-help system where security is the main concern.( there is no overarching authority to govern states, states act on their own)
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View of Actors: States are seen as unitary actors with a central authority that makes decisions aimed at ensuring the state's survival. The interests of the state
are paramount, often defined in terms of power and security.( states are seen as sole actors with central authority that makes decisions for the good of their people. Interests of the states are defined in terms of power and security)
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Behavioural Dynamics: Realists focus on the potential use of force among states.
Strategies to maximize national security, such as diplomacy, deterrence, forming alliances, and, if necessary, war, are central. The international system's anarchic nature compels states to prioritize their security and power.( the behaviour of states is based on strategies that maximize national security, such as diplomacy,
deterrence, forming alliances, and, if necessary, war)
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Issues: The primary issues within realism are national security, conflict, and peace. Economic and social issues are often viewed through the lens of how they
affect a state's security and power.
Liberalism
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Analytic Units: Liberalism takes a broader view, considering states, sub-state actors (like firms and NGOs), and international organizations as important entities in international relations. This reflects a belief in the significance of both state and non-state actors in global politics.
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View of Actors: Unlike realism, liberalism acknowledges the complexity of actors beyond the state. It suggests that domestic actors and processes of decision-
making significantly impact international relations. The interests of these actors are broadly defined, including legitimacy, economic prosperity, and security.
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Behavioural Dynamics: Liberalism emphasizes the role of bargaining and cooperation among states and non-state actors. It posits that international institutions and norms can mitigate the anarchic nature of the international system, facilitating cooperation and peace.
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Issues: Liberalism addresses a broad agenda that includes not only security but also economic and social issues. The theory is optimistic about the prospects for
international cooperation and peace.
Marxism
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Analytic Units: Marxism views states, classes, and societies within the capitalist world system as critical units of analysis. It emphasizes the role of non-state actors and classes within and across nations, reflecting its focus on economic structures and class relations.
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View of Actors: Actors are seen as influenced by their historical and economic circumstances, particularly the dynamics of capitalism. Marxism posits that the behavior of states and other actors is determined by these underlying economic factors, with a focus on how they contribute to patterns of inequality and exploitation.
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Behavioural Dynamics: Marxists argue that states and groups act within patterns of economic dominance and dependency. The capitalist system's inherent inequalities drive the behavior of actors, leading to exploitation and conflict.
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Issues: Marxism primarily focuses on economic issues, highlighting the problems of dependency, exploitation, and inequality within the global capitalist system. It critiques the capitalist system for perpetuating inequalities both within
and between nations.
Table 3.2: What Can Realism Explain and What can’t Realism Explain? (Weber, 40)
What Realism Can Explain:
Cold War Conflictual Activities: Realism adeptly explains the competitive and conflictual nature of state interactions during the Cold War. The theory's emphasis on power struggles, national security concerns, and the pursuit of hegemony underpins the arms race, ideological confrontations, and proxy wars characteristic of this era.( realism can ecplain the the competitiveness of states during the cold war with the theories emplasis on powers truggles etc)
Lust for Power and Imperial Expansion: The theory is well-suited to explain historical and contemporary instances of states seeking to expand their influence and territories, driven by the desire to enhance their power relative to others.( realism can explain situations og states seeking too expand their influence drawn by the desire for power)
Struggle for Hegemony: Realism provides insights into how states vie for dominant positions within the international system to ensure their security and interests, often leading to rivalries and conflicts.( realism can explain why there is a struggle for bein the top dog)
Obsession with National Security: The realist lens highlights why states prioritize their security above all else, often leading to significant military buildups and strategic alliances to counter perceived threats.( realism can explain why states obsess with thierown national security) What Realism Struggles to Explain:
Post-Cold War Realities of Cooperation: Realism may find it challenging to account for the increased cooperation among states in the post-Cold War era, including the expansion of democratic peace and liberal institutions that foster collaboration rather than competition.( realism might find it hard to explain post cold war cooperarion among countries)
Increase in Liberal Free Trade Agreements: The emergence and success of numerous free trade agreements, which are predicated on mutual economic benefits rather than zero-sum competition, present a puzzle for the realist paradigm, which traditionally views international relations through the lens of conflict and rivalry.( realism could have trouble explaining the emergence of trade agreements built on mutual economic benefit)
Renewed Role of the United Nations: The effectiveness and increased reliance on international organizations like the United Nations for conflict resolution and global governance challenge the realist assertion of an anarchic international system devoid of meaningful supranational authority.( realism could have a problem explaining orginization lile the UN)
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Proliferation of Arms Control Agreements: The negotiation and implementation of arms control agreements, which require trust and cooperation between potential rivals, are phenomena that realism, with its focus on mistrust and competition, might not fully explain.(realism might not be able to explain arms agreements that rely on trust and cooperation)
International Humanitarianism: The rise of international humanitarian efforts and norms, which transcend national interests and power calculations to address global human needs and rights, also goes beyond the realist focus on state self-
interest and survival.( realism might have a ahrd time explaining the rise of international hunimarian efforts that transcend national interest)
The liberal variant, idealism, presents a positive view of international relations, emphasizing cooperation, moral standards, and the role of international organizations in
promoting peace. It asserts that humans are inherently moral, and states can achieve positive outcomes through transparent communication. Contrary to realism, idealism believes in the potential for peaceful cooperation, underlining the importance of ethical conduct, the effectiveness of international law and organizations like the UN, and the constructive role of global civil society in advocating for human rights and justice. Idealism highlights that societies organized around open dialogue thrive, while those mired in misinformation and suppression tend to conflict.
Realism in Historical Perspective: Notes
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Long-standing Tradition: Realism's roots in international politics are deep and wide, drawing from a diverse range of intellectual traditions that view political dynamics as driven by power and self-interest.( realism is deeply entrenched in international politics)
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Pessimistic View of Human Nature: Historically, many thinkers have adopted a pessimistic stance on human nature, emphasizing inherent self-interest, fear, and
ambition as precursors to inevitable conflict.
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Academic Emergence: In the academic realm of International Relations (IR), realism solidified its stance in Britain and the USA, particularly in response to the atrocities witnessed during the world wars.
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Legacy and Tradition: Early realists claimed continuity with a long tradition of thought, linking their insights to those of ancient and early modern philosophers who also recognized the centrality of power struggles in political life.( realists link
thier ideas to a tradition of thought from the past)
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Classical Realism Focus: Central to classical realism is the belief that power struggles among states are key in shaping the dynamics of international relations, highlighting the perennial nature of competition and conflict in global politics.( the nature of comeptiton and power struggles shapes international relations)
The Realist Traditions
Geopolitics Notes
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Definition and Significance: Geopolitics examines the impact of physical space on international relations, a key aspect of realist thought in the 20th century. It focuses on how geographical conditions influence political power dynamics.
( geo politics focuses on how geographical conditions influences power dynamics)
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Influences and Approaches:
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Influenced by German thought, American geopolitical scholars linked political power directly to geographical conditions.
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The intersection of religion and politics, particularly in regions like the Middle East, exemplifies the complexity within geopolitical analysis.
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Notable Thinkers:
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Halford Mackinder, Friedrich Ratzel, and Alfred Mahan are recognized for integrating racial ideologies into their geopolitical studies to justify imperial policies by Britain, Germany, and the USA, influenced by social Darwinism and eugenics theories.
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Perspectives on Geography:
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Nicholas Spykman viewed geographic conditions as largely permanent and stable.
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Merze Tate argued for the dynamic and transformative potential of geopolitical analysis, suggesting that geography's influence on politics and international relations could change over time.
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Beyond Traditional Views:
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Jean Elshtain and other realists explored the gendered dimensions of geopolitics, proposing feminist perspectives that challenge conventional analyses and highlight the role of gender in geopolitical strategies.
Multiple realisms?
•Realism can be helpfully seen as a family of views, sharing key ideas but differing in the emphasis on, and interpretation of, these ideas
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Neorealism/Structural Realism Notes
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Anarchical System as a Determinant: Neorealists highlight the international system's anarchical structure as the primary force behind great power wars.(neo liberalism highlights the anarchaic structure of the international system as the primary force behind wars)
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Defensive Neorealists (Waltz): Argue that international anarchy compels states to seek a balance of power to ensure their security.( defensive neoliberalists argue that international anarchy leads countries to seek a balance of power for their security)
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Offensive Neorealists (Mearsheimer): Believe states' inherent self-interest drives them to maximize power and pursue hegemony as the ultimate security measure.( offensive neo liberals believe that the states inherent self drive leads them to want to maximize their power as the ultimate security measure)
Neoclassical Realism Notes
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Addressing Neorealist Discrepancies: Neoclassical realism introduces unit- and sub-unit-level factors to explain foreign policy decisions, addressing gaps in neorealist theory.
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Factors Influencing State Behavior: Emphasizes the role of leader preferences, ideologies, domestic politics, and perceptions as constraints on states' responses to the international environment.(there are factors that constrain or shape the states response)
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Example: The ideology and grand strategy of George W. Bush influenced the decision to invade Iraq, showcasing how individual beliefs and domestic factors can shape foreign policy.( george bush idealogy led to invasion of iraq)
Realism and Rising Powers Notes
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Classical Realism and China: Chinese scholar Yan Xuetong uses classical realism and Morgenthau’s views to depict China as a potential world hegemon that combines military power with moral authority.
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Russian Realists' Approach: Focus on a politics of power equilibrium, striving to maintain national sovereignty and security amid global power dynamics.
Case Study 9.1: Kautilya’s Realist Thought
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Historical Background: Kautilya, an advisor to the Indian King Chandragupta Maurya, authored the Arthasastra around 300 BCE, a seminal text on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy.
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Core Realist Principles: Kautilya's work epitomizes the realist pursuit of power and self-interest as the driving forces of foreign policy. His pragmatic approach to governance and diplomacy reflects a deep understanding of realpolitik.
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Famous Theory: Kautilya's strategic vision included the concept of the "Circle of States," where one's immediate neighbor is viewed as a potential enemy, and the state beyond as a potential ally. This framework underscores the strategic calculus in forming alliances and understanding regional dynamics.
Case Study 9.2: Russia’s Annexation of Crimea
●
Context: The annexation of Crimea by Russia in 2014, followed by military interventions in Ukraine, has been a focal point for analyzing contemporary realist theory.
●
Defensive Neorealism: From this perspective, Russia's actions can be seen as a response to the encroachment of Western military, economic, and political influence in its sphere of interest. It reflects a defensive posture aimed at securing Russia's borders and regional influence.
●
Offensive Neorealism: This view interprets Russia as a revisionist power seeking to disrupt the post-Cold War balance and establish itself as a regional hegemon. The annexation of Crimea and involvement in Ukraine represent strategic moves to challenge the existing international order and
extend its dominion.
●
Neoclassical Realism: This approach considers both Russia's position within the international system and internal factors such as domestic politics and leadership ideology. It suggests that the decision to annex Crimea and engage in Ukraine was influenced by a combination of international pressures and domestic ambitions to restore Russia's status as a great power.
Opposing Opinions: Realist theory shows that China can become a
superpower peacefully
For China's Peaceful Rise
Economic Development: Economic strength is a cornerstone of national power. China's remarkable economic growth over the past few decades has significantly
increased its influence on the global stage. Realists recognize that economic interdependence can reduce the likelihood of conflict, as the costs of war outweigh the benefits for economically intertwined states. China's continued focus on economic development and integration into the global economy could foster a peaceful rise by making conflict with other major powers, especially economically interdependent ones, less desirable.
Ideology of ‘Peaceful Rise’: The Chinese government has promoted the concept of a "peaceful rise" (or "peaceful development") to assuage fears of its growth as a threat. This policy is aimed at reassuring other states that China's growing power
will not be used aggressively but instead will contribute to global peace and stability. Realists might view this as a strategic move to reduce the perceived threat China poses, thereby minimizing the likelihood of containment strategies by other powers.
Effective Soft Power: Soft power—the ability to influence others through cultural appeal, diplomacy, and non-coercive means—is an important aspect of China's international strategy. By promoting its culture, values, and development model as attractive alternatives to Western paradigms, China can increase its global influence without resorting to military force. Realists acknowledge the role of soft
power in shaping the international order and reducing the potential for conflict by
enhancing mutual understanding and cooperation.
Against China's Peaceful Rise
Economic Competition Could Lead to War: Realist theory suggests that intense economic competition can be a precursor to conflict, as states vie for resources, markets, and strategic advantages. The competition between the US and China, for instance, could escalate into a security dilemma, where each side perceives the other's actions as threatening, leading to an arms race or even conflict.
The Hubris/Fear Paradox: The paradox of hubris (overconfidence in one's own strength) and fear (of the other's intentions and capabilities) can make peaceful solutions to disputes more difficult to achieve. As China's power grows, so might
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its confidence in its ability to assert its interests, potentially leading to overreach. Conversely, the US and other powers may react to China's rise with fear, prompting aggressive countermeasures. This dynamic could prevent the exploration of peaceful alternatives to escalating tensions.
Mistrust Between the US and China: Realism emphasizes the importance of trust in international relations. The current level of mistrust between the US and China, fueled by issues like technology theft, territorial disputes, and differing political systems, could lead to spirals of tension where defensive measures by one side are interpreted as offensive by the other. This cycle of suspicion and reaction could make peaceful coexistence and cooperation more difficult to achieve.
Chapter 7: Liberal internationalism
Founding Ideas of Nineteenth-Century Liberal Internationalism: Notes
●
Core Belief: Early liberal internationalists believed the natural world order was disrupted by secretive agreements and archaic policies like the balance of power system(
The balance of power theory in international relations suggests that states may secure their survival by preventing any one state from gaining enough military power to dominate all others
.)yw]
.( early liberal internationalists belileved that the natural world order
was disrupted by secretive agreements and archaic policies)
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Enlightenment Liberals
●
Solving War through International Laws: They posited that establishing a comprehensive set of international rules and laws could mitigate state self-
interest and bthus prevent wars.( solve wars throught implementation of internatinal laws)
●
Promoting Peace through Trade: Trade and other forms of cross-border interactions were seen as avenues to foster more peaceful international relations.( trade and other cross border nteractions were seen as avenues to foster more peace)
Key Thinkers
●
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832): Coined the term 'international' and advocated for international jurisprudence grounded in sovereign equality.
●
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804): Proposed that 'perpetual peace' could be realized through individual consciousness transformation, adopting republican constitutionalism, and a federation of states committed to ending war.
●
J.S. Mill (1806–73): His work contrasted European liberal governance with the perceived barbarism beyond Europe, inadvertently supporting imperialistic endeavors.
Critique and Reflection
●
Francis Fukuyama's 'The End of History?' (1989): Celebrated liberalism's victory over other ideologies, though critiques have since emerged, highlighting oversights and the premature declaration of liberalism's triumph.
Internationalism and Institutionalism: Peace Through Law
●
Challenging Natural Harmony: The outbreak of World War I between economically interdependent Britain and Germany questioned the idea that international political and economic relations naturally align interests.( we used to think peace could be achieved through trade but britian and germany showed that was not true)
●
Shift in Liberal Thinking: The devastating impact of World War I led to a reevaluation among liberals that peace is not inherent but must be actively constructed.( peace is notinherent we gotta work for it)
●
League of Nations:
●
Woodrow Wilson's Advocacy: The U.S. President pushed for the establishment of the League of Nations to manage international anarchy through collective security mechanisms and to promote the self-
determination of nations, though this was only partially realized.( league of
nations to manage international affairs)
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●
Flaws in Inter-War Liberal Thought:
●
Neglecting Power Dynamics: Thinkers underestimated the importance of power distribution and interests within the international system.
●
Underestimating the Role of Power in Values: There was a failure to recognize how closely values and purposes are connected to power.
●
Dependence on European Dominance: The League's effectiveness was overly reliant on the control of international society by European colonial powers, undermining its universality and neutrality.
●
Post-1945 Imperial Continuance:
●
The imperial tendencies of Anglo–American powers persisted into the post-World War II order, affecting the shaping of international institutions and norms.
The Challenges Confronting Liberal Internationalism
●
Perceived Crisis: The post-1945 era's liberal internationalist framework, characterized by cooperation, rule-based governance, and collective security, faces significant challenges, signaling a potential crisis.( liberal international framework under crisis for multiple reasons)
●
US's Declining Influence: The relative decline in the United States' power and its capacity to lead and enforce the liberal order raises questions about the sustainability of this framework.( US leadership declining)
●
Demand for Greater Authority by Rising Powers: Emerging powers are seeking a more significant say in international governance, challenging the
existing order dominated by established powers.( rising powers want more say)
●
European Union's Limitations: The EU, envisioned as a model of regional cooperation and liberal governance, has appeared weaker and less cohesive than anticipated, undermining its role as a pillar of liberal internationalism.( EU not as strong as expected)
●
UN's Ineffectiveness in Intervention: The lack of consensus and support within the United Nations for interventions based on liberal internationalist
principles highlights limitations in addressing global crises.( UN cant intervene due to a lack of consensus)
●
Uncertain Future: The decline of liberal internationalism brings into question the future shape of global governance.
●
Potential for Great Power Rivalry: There's a concern that diminishing liberal internationalism could revert the world back to a state of great power rivalries and conflicts reminiscent of the pre-World War I era.( we might revert back to world powers)
●
Adaptability of Liberal Internationalism: The critical challenge is whether liberal internationalism can evolve to accommodate the aspirations of
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emerging powers without compromising its foundational liberal values.
( we will see if liberal internationalism can evolve)
●
Critique of Existing Order:
●
Structural Inequalities: Critics argue that the liberal world order inherently benefits the most powerful states, perpetuating structural hierarchies and inequalities. This critique suggests that the order's liberal facade may mask underlying power dynamics favoring established powers.
Case Study 7.1: The Rise and Fall of the ‘Indispensable Nation’
●
Era of Unquestioned Dominance: Up until the 2010s, the United States was viewed by liberal internationalists as the 'indispensable nation', capable of unilateral military actions without needing global approval.
●
Changing Perceptions in the 2020s:
●
Trump Administration's Stance: Marked a significant departure from previous US policies by rejecting the multilateral institutions that had been
foundational to its global leadership role.
●
Legitimacy Concerns: Other major powers began to view the liberal world order as illegitimate, questioning the US's unilateral approach and its disregard for international consensus.
●
Shift From Liberal Norms: There was a noticeable global movement away from traditionally 'liberal' norms, indicating a broader skepticism toward the principles that had underpinned the post-World War II international order.
Case Study 7.2: Sovereignty as Responsibility: An African Concept
●
Redefining Sovereignty: This concept presents an alternative to the traditional notion of sovereignty, suggesting that states have a responsibility to protect their
citizens from human insecurity and rights abuses, moving beyond the mere assertion of non-intervention rights.
●
Global Concern for State Failure: The failure of states to protect their citizens or prevent mass displacements is seen as a challenge to global stability and order, necessitating a collective international response.
●
Evolution of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P):
●
Originating from the idea of shared domestic and international responsibility, the R2P doctrine has been notably embraced by the African Union as a guiding principle for intervention in cases of gross human rights violations within states.
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Opposing Opinions on Liberal Internationalism and R2P
●
Debate on Intervention: There's a contentious debate surrounding the extent to which liberal internationalist governments are obligated to intervene in other nations to prevent atrocity crimes, balancing the principles of state sovereignty against the imperative of protecting human rights.
Opposing Opinions: Liberal internationalist governments have a responsibility to protect
other people from atrocity crimes
For the Responsibility to Protect
Legal and Philosophical Foundation: Influential legal philosophers and international laws argue that states have a moral and legal duty to protect individuals from persecution and mass killings, regardless of nationality. This is grounded in the belief that certain rights, such as the right to life and security, transcend national borders and are universal.
Right to Security and R2P Core: The basic right to security from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity is central to the R2P principle. This doctrine is designed to ensure that the international community acts to prevent these crimes.
Codification in International Agreements: The R2P concept was codified at the 2005 World Summit within a 'three pillars' framework, which includes the responsibility of the state to protect its populations, the international community's responsibility to assist states in fulfilling this duty, and the international community's responsibility to intervene when states manifestly fail to protect their populations.
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Normative Consensus: There is a normative consensus among many international actors that there is a collective responsibility to prevent and stop atrocity crimes. This consensus is based on the recognition of shared human values and the interconnectedness of global security.
Against the Responsibility to Protect
Historical Rejection of Humanitarian Intervention: During the Cold War, the international community largely rejected the concept of humanitarian intervention, especially when it involved the use of force. This was due to concerns over sovereignty and the potential for abuse under the guise of humanitarian aid.
Sovereignty and Non-Intervention: The principle of state sovereignty and the prohibition of the use of force, as enshrined in the United Nations Charter, are central to the rules of the global order. These principles underscore the belief that states should not interfere in the internal affairs of other states, which complicates the implementation of R2P.
Ineffectiveness and Silence in Crises: Critics argue that the R2P framework has failed to be applied effectively in major crises, such as the conflict in Syria. The inability of the international community to act decisively in such situations casts doubt on the practicality and reliability of R2P.
Imperialist Impulses: There is a concern that R2P can be misused by powerful nations as a pretext for intervention in weaker states, under the guise of humanitarian assistance, but with ulterior motives such as resource exploitation or geopolitical advantage. This view sees R2P as potentially supporting imperialist tendencies rather than purely humanitarian objectives.
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Chapter 8: Marxist theories of international relations
Marxist Ideas in Post-Cold War Era
●
Persistence of Capitalism's Problems: Despite the initial dismissal of Marxist ideas following the Cold War's end, the continuing issues within capitalism have led to a reconsideration of its relevance.( capitalism continues to have issues)
●
Questioning Liberal Democracy's Triumph: The assumed victory of liberal democracy over other ideologies is no longer certain, highlighting the need to understand global capitalism's impacts on world politics through a Marxist lens.
( the liberal democracy win over other idealgoeis is being questioned)
Essential Elements of Marxist Theories in World Politics
●
Marx's Limited Direct Contribution: Although Marx himself offered little specific analysis of international relations, his ideas form the foundation of various Marxist schools of thought.
●
Core Marxist Principles:
●
Social Totality: Commitment to analyzing the social world as a whole, understanding the interconnectedness of societal aspects.( everything is connected)
●
Materialist History: Viewing historical development through the lens of material conditions and economic factors.( historical development understood through material conditions and economic factors)
●
Class Struggle: Focusing on the conflict between social classes as a driving force in societal change.( struglle between social classes drives change)
●
Scholarship's Aim: Marxist theory seeks not only to understand the world but to contribute to human emancipation.( not just to understand world but to free human)
Marx Internationalized: From Imperialism to World-Systems Theory
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●
Global Capitalism Analysis: Marxist theorists have expanded on Marx's recognition of capitalism's global dimensions, exploring its international implications.
●
Development of World-Systems Theory:
●
Inspired by Lenin's work on imperialism and the Dependency School, world-systems theory examines the global economy's hierarchical structure.9 world-systems theory examines global economics hierrhcy ●
Economic Zones: Identifies three main zones (core, periphery, semi-
periphery) interconnected through exploitative relationships, with wealth flowing from the periphery to the core.( tehre us 3 zones(core, peripheral, semi periphery)
●
●
Feminist Contributions: Feminist scholars have enriched the analysis by highlighting women's specific roles and experiences within international capitalism.( femenissts enriched convo by highlighting womens roles/experiences in international capitalism
Gramscianism in International Relations
●
Inspiration from Antonio Gramsci: The 'Italian' school of International Relations draws heavily on Gramsci's work, particularly his focus on superstructural elements of society rather than purely economic factors.
●
Concept of Hegemony: Gramsci's analysis centers on how societal consent is manufactured and maintained through hegemony, where the ruling class's ideologies become dominant across society, shaping public consent and compliance.( public consent and social compliance is due to social conditioning of what they should believe by the ruling powers)
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●
Global Application by Robert W. Cox: Cox and others have extended Gramsci’s concepts, especially hegemony, to the international level, examining how these dynamics play out on a global scale, influencing world politics and governance.
( this also applies on the world scale)
Critical Theory in International Relations
●
Origins in the Frankfurt School: Critical theory's foundations lie in the Frankfurt School's critique of society, focusing on cultural, bureaucratic, and social structures.
●
Key Focus Areas:
●
Emphasis on culture and media, bureaucracy, authoritarianism's social roots, family structures, and the concepts of reason and rationality.
●
Jürgen Habermas:
●
Advocates for radical democracy, positing that genuine emancipation can be achieved through communicative action and dialogue, transforming the
public sphere.( freedom for humans can be achieved through dialogue)
●
Andrew Linklater:
●
Expands critical theory to international relations, advocating for extending moral and political community boundaries.
●
Cites the European Union as an example of governance beyond traditional state boundaries, embodying post-Westphalian principles.( this is good)
New Marxism Overview
●
Re-engagement with Marxist Concepts: New Marxism revitalizes the study of international relations by revisiting and reinterpreting the ideas of Karl Marx and other seminal Marxist theorists, focusing on their applicability to contemporary global dynamics.( new marxism centered around the study of international relations focusing on applying marxists ideas internationally)
●
Example - Justin Rosenberg: Rosenberg's work exemplifies New Marxist scholarship through his analysis of uneven and combined development, a concept drawn from Trotsky's study of Russia's integration into the global political economy.
●
Uneven and Combined Development:
●
This approach challenges the notion of a uniform path of development for all nations, arguing instead that each country's developmental trajectory is
significantly influenced by its interactions within the international system.
(his idea is that each countireies development is not a linear progression insead being influenced by interactions with the international system)
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●
It has been applied to understand Iran's economic and political development throughout the twentieth century, showcasing the theory's relevance in analyzing specific national contexts within the global capitalist framework.( iran could be bug but sanctions)
Conclusion: Marxist Perspective on Global Order
●
Global Capitalist Dominance: From a Marxist viewpoint, the world has been historically dominated by an integrated global capitalist system, which shapes economic and political structures worldwide.( marzists believe world has been dominated by integrated capitalist system)
●
Questioning Natural Order: Marxism posits that there is nothing natural or predestined about the global market-based order; instead, it is a construct of specific historical and social processes.( marxists say the global market based order is not natural instead it is a construct of coial and historical processes)
●
Vision for the Future: The imperative now is to envision and work towards establishing a more equitable and humane global society. This entails critical examination of existing structures and the pursuit of alternatives that prioritize social justice and human well-being over capital accumulation.( the goal is to build a better world, entailing an examination of existing structures, that prioritize
money over human)
New Marxism offers a critical lens through which to examine and understand the complexities of global capitalism, emphasizing the possibility and necessity of transformative change towards a more just global order.
Case Study 8.1: The Capitalist Development of Communist China
●
Marx and Capitalism: Marx recognized capitalism's capability to revolutionize societies and economies, a concept clearly illustrated by China’s rapid development.
●
China's Transformation: Since 1979, China's embrace of market reforms under the Chinese Communist Party has led to unprecedented economic growth and social changes, showcasing capitalism's transformative effects within a communist governance framework.
Case Study 8.2: The Global COVID-19 Pandemic
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●
Exacerbation of Inequalities: The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted and intensified existing disparities related to nation, class, race, and gender, hitting the poorest communities the hardest.
●
Marxist Perspective on Pandemic Effects: The pandemic underscores the Marxist view that individuals' life chances are significantly influenced by their position within the global capitalist hierarchy, demonstrating how systemic inequities are perpetuated and amplified in crisis situations.
Opposing Opinions on Global Economy and Politics
●
Debate on Economic Determinism: The argument that the global economy primarily shapes the nature of global politics invites scrutiny from various theoretical perspectives. While this view aligns with Marxist analysis, emphasizing economic structures as foundational to political power dynamics, opposing viewpoints might stress the autonomy of political, cultural, or ideological factors in influencing global affairs.
Opposing Opinions: The global economy is the prime determinant of the character of global politics
For the Global Economy as Prime Determinant
Economic Power and Military Projection: Proponents argue that a state's economic power directly influences its military capabilities. Historically, the most economically prosperous nations have possessed the means to build and sustain strong military forces, enabling them to project power globally. This perspective suggests that economic strength is a fundamental enabler of geopolitical influence.
Economic Turmoil and Global Instability: Economic downturns and crises are often precursors to broader instability within the international system. The Great Depression, for example, not only devastated economies worldwide but also set the stage for World War II, illustrating how economic distress can fuel political
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extremism, conflict, and upheaval. This viewpoint posits that economic stability is crucial for global peace and security.
Capitalist Interests Shaping Foreign Policy: From this angle, the foreign policies of states, particularly in capitalist systems, are heavily influenced by economic interests. Access to markets, resources, and strategic economic partnerships can dictate state actions, including interventions, alliances, and conflicts. This perspective views economic motivations as central to understanding international relations.
Against the Global Economy as Prime Determinant
Balance of Power and Political Dynamics: Critics argue that the balance of power, a concept rooted in realism, is more decisive in shaping the character of international politics. This theory suggests that states primarily act to prevent any single state from dominating the system. It emphasizes military and strategic considerations over economic factors, positing that political power dynamics, rather than economic conditions alone, dictate international relations.
Democracy and Global Stability: The theory that the spread of democracy leads to greater global stability challenges the primacy of economic factors. Democratic peace theory suggests that democracies are less likely to engage in war with each other, attributing peace and stability to political systems rather than economic conditions. This perspective underscores the role of political ideologies and institutions in shaping global politics.
Altruistic Motivations and Non-Economic Factors: This argument points out that not all state behaviors can be explained by economic interests alone. Humanitarian interventions, environmental agreements, and foreign aid often reflect altruistic motives, ideological commitments, or security concerns that transcend economic calculations. This viewpoint suggests that a variety of factors, including ethical considerations and global norms, influence state actions in the international arena.
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Chapter 29: Terrorism and globalization
●
Complexity in Defining Terrorism: Defining terrorism is challenging due to its varied motivations and the subjective nature of what constitutes a terrorist act. It is characterized by violence from sub-state groups aimed at political change, distinguishing it from criminal acts.( defining terrorism is difficult due to te varied
motivations and subjective nature, it is charecterized by violence from sub-state groupls to enact change)
Definitions and Perspectives
●
Legitimacy of Motivations: Terrorist groups gain traction when their motivations are perceived as legitimate by broader audiences. States' disproportionate responses can inadvertently boost support for these groups.( terrorists grow when their motivstions are seen as legitimate, states respond disproportionately can strengthen terrorist argument)
●
Impact of Globalization: Globalization, with its advancements in technology, has significantly enhanced the capabilities of terrorist organizations. The term "terrorism" itself is value-laden and eludes a precise definition.( globalization becasue of tech has enhanced terrorism capabalititea)
●
Expert Consensus: Despite difficulties in defining terrorism, there's agreement that it involves the use of violence or the threat thereof to instill fear, achieve goals, and garner publicity, often disregarding humanitarian norms.( terrorism involves the use of violence to instill fear)
●
Terrorism as a Tactic: Often employed by the powerless against the powerful, terrorism is a strategy used by political, ethnic, or religious minorities to advance their causes or seek revenge against perceived oppressors.( terrorisms used against the powerful by the powerless minorities to advance their causes or seek
revenge against oppressors)
●
State Responses: Repressive actions by states against terrorist acts can sometimes legitimize and strengthen terrorist groups, making careful response crucial.( sometimes states responding to terrorsits legitimizes terrorists action so you gotta be careful)
●
Historical Context: The term "terrorism" originated from the French Revolution's "reign of terror," initially seen as a tool for consolidating power by the revolutionary government. However, its perception evolved as thinkers like Edmund Burke critiqued the use of terror for social gain.
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The French Revolution and the Concept of Terror
●
Robespierre’s Justification: Maximilien Robespierre, a key figure during the French Revolution, defended the use of terror as essential for the survival of the French Republic, equating it with swift and severe justice, a manifestation of virtue necessary for addressing the country's immediate needs.( terrorism equated to a swift and severe judgment needed for the country)
●
Guillotine Executions: Under Robespierre's reign of terror, approximately 40,000 people were executed by guillotine, marking a period of extreme violence justified
as a means of protecting the revolution.
David Rapoport's Four Waves of Terrorism
Breakup of Empires: Early terrorism linked to the dissolution of empires.( empires split)
Decolonization: Acts of terrorism arising from the process of decolonization.
( terrorism to achive decolonization)
Leftist Anti-Westernism: Terrorism inspired by leftist ideologies opposing Western influence and capitalism.( terrorism against weestern influence/ capitalism by leftits)
Modern Religious Terrorism: Contemporary terrorism, exemplified by groups like al-
Qaeda, inspired by religious motivations.( modern religious terrorism)
Audrey Kurth Cronin's Classification of Terrorist Groups
●
Left-Wing Terrorism: Tied to the communist movement, advocating for radical changes to the social and economic structures.9 communists who want change in the economic structure)
●
Right-Wing Terrorism: Influenced by fascist ideologies, often characterized by authoritarianism and racial supremacy.( fascits authroitarain racists)
●
Ethno-National/Separatist Terrorism: Associated with movements seeking independence or greater autonomy, particularly in the aftermath of World War II during decolonization efforts.( wanting independacne from wetsern rule)
●
“Sacred” or Religious Terrorism: Currently the most significant form, where acts are justified through religious beliefs, aiming for radical transformation based on spiritual motivations.( terorrisrm for religious gain)
Cross-Ideological Motivations
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●
Complex Ideologies: Many terrorist groups may not strictly adhere to a single ideology but instead draw from a mix of motivations, blending political, ethnic, and religious elements in their justifications and objectives.( lots of groups have many ideologies not just one)
Five Motives for Terrorist Action (Hirschmann)
Ideological Terrorism: Motivated by the desire to radically alter political or social structures, often through revolutionary means.( 1st motive according to hirschmann is to alter political or social structures)
Ethno-Political Terrorism: Stemming from ethnic or political minorities' aspirations for statehood or political and cultural autonomy within existing states.( enthinic moniorites wnating statehood or cultural autonomy in existing states)
Religious Terrorism: Driven by the goal of enforcing religious norms of conduct or achieving a religious mission, including extreme forms such as apocalyptic fanaticism exemplified by cults like Aum Shinrikyo in Japan.( driven by enforcing religious norms)
Single Issue Terrorism: Focuses on protest against specific grievances or perceived injustices, typically related to government action or inaction, by groups or individuals with extreme militancy.( terrorism focused on one type of action)
The Chosen Ones: Involves mentally disturbed individuals who, despite their fundamental rationality in planning attacks, operate solo without the backing of networks or groups, motivated by a personal mission or social philosophy.( solo guys doing terrorism for whatever reason)
Breaking Down Terrorism – Paul Wilkinson
●
Characteristics of Terrorism:
●
Premeditated Violence: Terrorism is deliberate, aiming to instill a climate of extreme fear.( terrorism is premediteaed)
●
Broader Targeting: Beyond the immediate victims, terrorism seeks to affect a wider audience.(terrorism wants to reach a broad audience)
●
Random or Symbolic Attacks: Involves targeting civilians or symbolic locations to maximize fear and attention.( involves attacks that are symbolic)
●
Violation of Norms: Seen as 'extra-normal' within society, breaking established norms for resolving disputes or expressing dissent.( seen as extra because they violate norms)
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●
Political Influence: Primarily used to alter the political behavior of governments, communities, or specific social groups.( terrorism used to influence politics)
Examples of Terrorist Attacks
●
Hijackings: Taking control of aircrafts to fulfill political or ideological objectives.
●
Kidnappings: Abducting individuals as leverage for demands.
●
Mail/Package Bombs: Sending explosives through postal services to cause harm
and fear.
●
Suicide Bombers: Individuals carrying out attacks that result in their own death, targeting crowded or symbolic places.
●
Hostage Situations: Capturing individuals or groups to negotiate demands.
●
Car Bombs: Using vehicles loaded with explosives to cause destruction and casualties.
●
Assassinations: Targeting specific individuals for murder based on their political, social, or cultural significance.
●
Shootings and Other Assaults: Armed attacks targeting people or places to instill fear or protest against grievances.
This overview delineates the multifaceted motivations behind terrorism and its operational characteristics, highlighting the complexity and diverse methods employed in terrorist acts.
Terrorism: From Transnational to Global Phenomenon (1968–
2001)
●
Political Violence with Limited Means: Terrorism seeks to create significant impacts using minimal resources, targeting symbols and citizens, particularly of the West, post-1979.( terorroism big boom limited resources target symbol and cilivilians big shock)
Transition from Transnational to Global
●
Technological and Globalization Impacts: The advent of globalization and related
technologies has broadened the scope and impact of terrorism, with a notable increase in attacks against US interests following the Soviet Union's collapse.
( globilization/tech allowed bigger scope and impact of terrorism, big increase in attack agaainst US interests)
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Rise of Religious Terrorism: The void left by the diminished sponsorship from leftist ideologies contributed to the emergence of religious terrorism as a dominant force.( voild left by leftist terrorism led to increase in religious terrorism)
Globalization, Technology, and Terrorism
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Leveraging Globalization: The same elements that facilitate the global exchange of ideas and goods also empower terrorist networks, enhancing their operational capabilities and reach.( globiliztion increased terorroism reach)
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Networked Operations: Modern technologies have enabled terrorists to form distributed networks, increasing the sophistication of attacks and the potential for acquiring weapons of mass destruction.(modern tech allowed increase in sophisitication of attacks and better weapons)
Trends and Impact
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Evolving Tactics: Since 1968, terrorism has seen trends towards higher casualties, more sophisticated methods, and a preference for suicide attacks, shifting from Marxist-Leninist groups to militant Islamic factions.( since 1968 terrorism has been better more sophistaicated and more deadly with preference for suicide attacks)
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Impact of Globalization: While cultural, economic, and religious factors offer insights into the motivations behind terrorism, they provide an incomplete picture
without considering the overarching goal of reshaping states through political power, often justified under religious pretexts.( lot of factors at play in terrorism but the goal is to reshape states through political power often religious justifications)
Modern Violent Islamic Extremism
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Political Power and Sharia Law: The ultimate aim of contemporary violent Islamic
extremism is not just theological but deeply political, seeking to implement wide-
scale reforms in accordance with Sharia law.( musltim terrorists want sharia law)
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Exploitation of Globalization by Terrorists: Globalization's infrastructure, notably the internet and social media, facilitates instant communication, recruitment, and
coordination among terrorists, potentially increasing the threat of catastrophic attacks using advanced weaponry.( internent helps terororists)
This summary delineates the transformation of terrorism in the context of globalization and technological advancements, highlighting the shift in motivations, tactics, and the broader implications for global security. The role of religion, while significant, is part of a
larger political ambition driving modern terrorism.
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Combating Terrorism in the Age of Globalization
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Globalization's Double endegd sword: While globalization enhances terrorists' capabilities, it also provides states with a range of tools and advantages to counteract terrorism effectively.( globilaxation helps terororists butlaso helps states fight terrorism)
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State Advantages: States possess political, military, legal, economic, and technological means to fight terrorism, both individually and through international cooperation.( sates ahve more resources to fight terororism)
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National Perspectives and Responses: The perception of the terrorism threat and
the strategies to counter it often vary among states, influenced by national biases and historical experiences.9 different countries with different biases have different ways of fighting teroorism
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Ideological Battlefront: A critical aspect of counter-terrorism is challenging the appeal of ideologies that fuel terrorism, requiring both domestic and international
efforts.( big part of counter terrorism is idelaogical war against ideas that fuel terrorism)
Case Study 29.1: Islamic State in the Philippines and Mozambique
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Marawi Siege (Philippines, 2017): A coalition, including the Maute group, occupied parts of Marawi city, marking a significant IS-influenced operation in Southeast Asia.
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Attacks in Cabo Delgado (Mozambique): The Islamic State-affiliated group ASJ launched attacks in Mozambique's Cabo Delgado province, claiming numerous lives and disrupting the region.
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IS's Narrative Victories: In both instances, the Islamic State proclaimed ideological victories, emphasizing the global reach of its influence.
Case Study 29.2: The 6 January ‘Insurrection’
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US Capitol Violence (2021): The event showcased how globalization and technology could unify diverse groups for a common cause, in this case, contesting the US election results.
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Technology's Role: Played a significant role in organizing the event and in the subsequent law enforcement response, highlighting the impact of digital platforms on both activism and countermeasures.
Overview
Combating terrorism in the globalized world requires leveraging the comprehensive advantages available to states while acknowledging the challenges posed by national differences in threat perception and counter-terrorism approaches. Addressing the ideological foundations of terrorism is as crucial as operational countermeasures. The
case studies of IS activities in the Philippines and Mozambique, along with the 6 January insurrection in the US, underscore the complex interplay between globalization, technology, and terrorism, illustrating both the challenges and opportunities in addressing modern terrorist threats.
Opposing Opinions: The United States was justified in using a remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) to target and kill the leader of the Iranian Quds Force, Qassem Soleimani, in Iraq in January 2020 as an act of countering terrorism
Arguments For the Justification
Terrorist Organization Classification: The Quds Force, an elite unit of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), has been designated as a terrorist organization by the United States. Proponents argue that Soleimani, as the commander of the Quds Force, was actively involved in planning and executing operations that resulted in the deaths of U.S. personnel and allies, thereby justifying the strike as an act of counterterrorism.
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Imminent Threat: Supporters of the strike argue that Soleimani posed an imminent threat to U.S. personnel and interests in the region. The doctrine of pre-emptive self-defense, as argued by the U.S., allows for the use of force if there is credible evidence of an impending attack. Thus, the killing of Soleimani is seen as a proportional response to neutralize a direct threat.
Escalation to Deescalate: Some argue that the strike was a strategic move to "escalate to deescalate" tensions between Iran and the U.S. By removing a key military leader, the U.S. aimed to deter Iran from further aggressive actions, thereby preventing a larger conflict and protecting U.S. personnel and interests in
the Middle East.
Arguments Against the Justification
Questionable Legitimacy: Critics question the legal and moral legitimacy of the strike, pointing to international law restrictions on sovereignty and the use of force. The killing of a foreign military leader in a third country (Iraq) without its consent raises concerns about the violation of Iraqi sovereignty and the norms governing international relations.
Insufficient Evidence: Opponents argue there was insufficient public evidence provided to justify the claim of an "imminent threat" posed by Soleimani. Without transparent evidence, the strike's legality and morality under international law and the principles of self-defense come into question.
Damaging Overreactions: Critics contend that actions like the Soleimani strike are overreactions that can be more damaging than the terrorism they seek to counter. Such unilateral military actions risk escalating conflicts, leading to retaliatory attacks, regional instability, and the potential for broader conflict. The aftermath of the strike saw increased tensions between the U.S. and Iran, with concerns about the safety of U.S. personnel and interests in the region.
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