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Chapter 4: International history of the twentieth century
Modern Total War: The First World War
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Debates on the Origins:
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The origins of the First World War have been a subject of extensive debate
among historians and scholars. The central question revolves around whether the German government bore the primary responsibility for the outbreak of the war or whether a constellation of more complex, systemic factors led to the conflict. ●
Characteristics of the War:
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Marking a departure from previous conflicts, the First World War is recognized as the first modern, industrialized total war. This war saw an unprecedented mobilization of entire populations and economies alongside military forces, driven by the capabilities of industrial technology. The mobilization scale, facilitated by advancements such as steam-powered ships and railways, allowed for the sustenance and movement of massive armies over considerable distances, demonstrating
the totalizing nature of the war. Germany, for example, mobilized over 10 million individuals for its armed forces during this conflict, underscoring the extensive reach and impact of the war efforts.( first world war was the first industrilized war we had which allowed technologies to be used that helped run the war)
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Aftermath and the Treaty of Versailles:
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The Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which concluded the war, has been widely criticized for its failure to effectively address the underlying issues of European security. The treaty imposed severe reparations on Germany, aiming to hold it accountable for the war, but in doing so, it inadvertently laid the groundwork for further grievance and instability within the European state system. ●
Moreover, the principle of self-determination, which was championed in the aftermath of the war, notably did not extend to the European colonial empires. This omission highlighted the inconsistencies in the application of self-determination principles and contributed to the perpetuation of imperialistic structures, thereby sowing seeds for future conflicts.( the treaty of versailles which imposed reparations on germany did not work and ultimately laid the groundwork for the second war.( the principle of
self determination was a focus but was not extended to eurpopean colonial empires)
Modern Total War: The Second World War
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Rise of Hitler and European Political Inertia:
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The ascent of Hitler and the Nazi regime presented existential threats to European stability, against which political leaders showed a notable lack of will and capability to counteract effectively. This inability contributed significantly to the outbreak of the Second World War, illustrating a catastrophic failure of diplomacy and peacekeeping efforts.( eurpose did not do a good job with the rise of hitles which led to world war 2)
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Extension to Total Warfare:
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The German invasion of the Soviet Union marked a pivotal transition from limited military engagements to a broader and more brutal conflict, emblematic of total warfare. This expansion not only extended the war's geographical and operational scope but also facilitated an unprecedented alliance between the Soviet Union and the United States, uniting these powers against a common adversary.( german invasion of the soviet union intensified the conflict making it more brutal)
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Impact of Pearl Harbor:
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The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was a critical juncture that led to the
United States' entry into the European theatre of war, compelling Germany to fight on two fronts once again. This strategic blunder by the Axis powers significantly altered the war's dynamics, leading to a broader coalition against them.( the axis powers deciding to attack pearl harbor brought america into the war and made the axis powers in danger)
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Debate on the Atomic Bomb:
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The use of the atomic bomb in 1945 remains a subject of intense debate, concerning its necessity and the ethical implications of its deployment against civilian targets in Japan. This decision has been scrutinized for its humanitarian and strategic ramifications, with opinions divided on its justification.( use of the bomb on hiroshima is up for debate on its moral justificatio)
End of Empire
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Principle of Self-Determination:
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Post-World War II, the principle of self-determination emerged as a pivotal doctrine in international politics, driving the decolonization process. This shift was influenced by the recognition that colonial subjects deserved the
right to self-governance and political autonomy.( after ww2 the principle of
self determination emerged as a pivotal doctorine driving the process of decolonization)
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Factors Influencing Decolonization:
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Decolonization was shaped by various factors, including the attitudes of colonial powers towards relinquishing control, the ideologies and strategies of anti-imperialist movements, the role of external powers in supporting or opposing decolonization efforts, and the impact of key figures such as George Marshall.
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Diverse European Responses:
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Post-1945, European powers exhibited differing stances on decolonization, with some nations more willing than others to grant independence to their colonies. This period saw a mix of peaceful transitions and revolutionary wars, underscoring the complexity and diversity of decolonization processes.( this period of decolonization saw a
mix of nations granting independence and revolutions happening etc)
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Cold War Dynamics:
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The Cold War context significantly influenced the decolonization process, with superpower rivalries often exacerbating conflicts in newly independent states. Independence and national liberation movements in some regions became entangled with broader geopolitical strategies, leading to varied outcomes and ongoing disputes.
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Success of Decolonization:
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The success of decolonization is subject to interpretation, contingent upon one's perspective. While it marked the end of formal European empires and the emergence of new nation-states, the legacy of colonialism continues to affect political, economic, and social dynamics globally.( the siccess of decolonization is a hitly contested topic)
European decolonization (1945–80)
Cold War
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Origins and Responsibilities:
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The Cold War, following closely on the heels of World War II, represented a
period of intense geopolitical tension between the Western allies, led by the United States, and the Soviet Union along with its allies. Debates continue regarding the precise origins and the main actors responsible for the escalation of the Cold War. Some historians emphasize the role of atomic weapons in the conflict's genesis, while others highlight ideological, strategic, and economic factors as central to understanding the mutual hostility between the superpowers.( the cold war represented a
conflict bewtwween the US and its allies and the soviet uniona nd its allies)
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Phases of the Cold War:
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The Cold War experienced various phases, each marked by shifting levels of tension and confrontation:
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1945–53: The onset characterized by the formation of opposing blocs and initial confrontations.
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1953–69: A period marked by conflict, confrontation, and occasional compromise.
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1969–79: The era of détente, reflecting a temporary easing of tensions.
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1979–86: Often referred to as 'the second cold war', this phase saw
renewed tensions and hostility.
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Impact on Global Conflicts:
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Cold War dynamics exacerbated some regional and civil wars by drawing in superpower support for opposing sides, potentially prolonging conflicts.
However, the overarching threat of escalation into a direct superpower conflict may have also acted as a deterrent in some instances, preventing further escalation or even the outbreak of new conflicts.( war between 2 superpowers aced as a detterent to rising conflict)
Cold War: Nuclear Weapons
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Significance of Nuclear Weapons:
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Nuclear weapons played a pivotal role in the Cold War, serving both as tools of deterrence and as focal points for arms control agreements. The threat of nuclear annihilation shaped the defense and foreign policies of both the United States and the Soviet Union, influencing their strategic calculations and international postures.( threat of nuclar war had a big effect on the cold war serving as a tool for detterence)
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Arms Control Agreements:
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Efforts to limit and control the growth of nuclear arsenals were significant aspects of US–USSR relations. Treaties such as the Partial Test Ban Treaty and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty represented important steps towards managing the nuclear arms race and reducing the risk of nuclear war.
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Legacy and International Crises:
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Despite the end of the Cold War, nuclear weapons remain a central element of international security concerns. Various crises during the Cold War era, including the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and others, highlighted the acute risk of nuclear war. These events continue to serve as crucial case studies for understanding the dynamics of nuclear deterrence and the importance of arms control.( despite the end of the cold war, nuclear weapons remains an international security concern)
Opposing Opinions: During the cold war, the benefits of nuclear weapons outweighed their costs and risks
For: Benefits Outweighed Costs and Risks
Nuclear Deterrence Kept the Peace: Advocates for nuclear weapons argue that their existence prevented direct military conflict between the superpowers. The principle of deterrence—the idea that the threat of mutual destruction would prevent either side from actually using nuclear weapons—maintained peace and prevented a potential World War III.
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) Provided Stability: The MAD doctrine, which posited that any nuclear attack by one superpower would result in the complete annihilation of both the attacker and the defender, created a precarious but real form of stability. Both sides were deterred from starting a nuclear conflict due to the guarantee of their own destruction.
The Bomb Was Cheap: Compared to the enormous costs associated with conventional military forces, nuclear weapons were seen as a cost-effective means of achieving a strong defense posture. The deterrent effect of a nuclear arsenal allowed for smaller conventional forces, potentially saving money in defense budgets.
Cold War Arms Agreements: Arms control agreements, such as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, helped to manage and reduce the risks and costs associated with the nuclear arms race. These agreements limited the number and types of nuclear weapons, reducing the likelihood of an accidental or deliberate nuclear war.
Against: Costs and Risks Outweighed Benefits
Increased East-West Tensions: Critics argue that nuclear weapons exacerbated tensions between the Eastern and Western blocs, creating a climate of fear and suspicion. The arms race led to a security dilemma, where each side's efforts to increase its security led the other side to feel less secure and more likely to escalate its own military capabilities.
Arms Control Did Not Lead to Disarmament: Despite arms control efforts, the nuclear arsenals of both superpowers grew to staggering numbers, far beyond what was necessary for deterrence. These agreements often failed to achieve their ultimate goal of disarmament and instead legitimized the possession of nuclear weapons.
Risk of Inadvertent Nuclear War: The history of the Cold War includes several nuclear
crises, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, where misunderstandings or miscalculations could have led to nuclear war. The reliance on fallible human judgment and technology in managing nuclear arsenals posed a significant risk of an accidental or inadvertent nuclear conflict.
Environmental Implications: Nuclear weapons testing and potential nuclear warfare carry severe environmental and health risks. Nuclear fallout from testing has had
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