Pathogenic Leptospirosis: Zoonotic Disease

Diseases can cause a devastating effect on both the human body, and also the human population. Throughout several time periods of the present and past, diseases have caused a humongous impact in several society's in different countries around the world. Several large pandemics and epidemics have killed off the population of many species including humans and primates. Wether the time period is in the present or as far back as the Middle Ages, each and every one of these diseases, have had a life threatening outbreak, across several developing countries. Three known diseases have all created a huge conflict on different civilizations, causing different, unanswered questions to arise. A lot of research has gone into each individual disease, to

Currently, one of the major problems in the world is the rapid change of our climate. Years of research and studies have linked climate change to the spreading and occurrence of many infectious diseases. Vectors and pathogens that were not able to spread to certain countries before because temperatures were too low for them to survive in are now being able to habituate these parts of the world because of how much warmer our planet is becoming. This is concerning to us because infectious diseases can increase death rates. Therefore, if our planet continues to get warmer, the more infectious diseases will spread, and the more humans will die. This research paper attempts to provide a better understanding on how diseases are spreading more

Not all bacteremias lead to sepsis. People have everyday bacteremia, particularly, from oral cavity, but sepsis develops rarely [27-31]. It occurs when the infection is resistant to host antibacterial defense. The latter is different in the bloodstream and tissues. If the infection develops locally (tissue, cavity, etc.) and then enters the bloodstream, there are two stages of sepsis: pre-septic (local) and septic (generalized). If infection enters the bloodstream directly from an external source (contaminated intravenous injection, bite, etc.), the pre-septic stage is absent. Local antibacterial defense is provided by phagocytosis (leukocytes and their local versions: resident macrophages), complement, NETs, etc., whereas in the bloodstream

An ‘emerging’ disease is one that is speedily increasing in frequency or distribution. This expression not only circumscribes the diseases corresponding with previously unknown agents, but additional known diseases that are ‘re-emerging’, as well. What is it that provokes disease emergence? Epidemiological principles profess that disease is multi-factorial. That is, in inclusion to the existence of the infectious agent, additional factors, such as the agent, host, and/or the environment are all generally imperative for infection and disease to occur. But who would have concluded that one of the most menacing viral infections would result from a mammal? The Nipah Virus Infection (NiV) is a known emerging infection, targeting the public health

Species range expansion is a global phenomenon (Holt 2003) driven primarily by factors such as climate change (Walther et al. 2009, Chen et al. 2011) and land use change (e.g. Dawe et al. 2014). Such events have resulted in the rapid emergence of several zoonotic diseases (Crowl et al. 2008, Engering et al. 2013) as pathogen, disease vector, or reservoir host species introduce disease into a previously naïve region (e.g. Legér et al. 2013, Fuller et al. 2012). Since the process of species range expansion always produces observable genetic signals, such as lower genetic diversity and greater genetic structuring among populations at range edges (Excoffier et al. 2009, Cristescu 2015)we can apply concepts from population genetic theories to identify

If the infection spreads to your kidneys, symptoms may include, shaking or night sweats, fatigue and a general ill feeling, fever above 101 degrees Fahrenheit, pain in flanks, back, or groin area, flushed appearance in skin, heightened temperature, mental changes or confusion (in the elderly), nausea, vomiting, and severe abdominal pain.

The Mission of the CDC is to protect America from health, safety, and security threats,

According to the World Health Organization, a 2008 study showed that in the last 100 years, the world has warmed by approximately 0.75oC (Cruickshank 354). This warming has been and is a major factor that has contributed to the increase of destructive weather events. Such could be true in the case of the deadly typhoon that struck the Philippines in November of 2013. These weather events, in turn, contribute to the fact that infectious disease is the cause of approximately 37 percent of all the deaths in the world. This statistic is only expected to increase as a result of global warming. Additionally, over 40% of the citizens of developing countries and less than 2% of the citizens of developed countries are infected at any given time (Chan et al. 330). This is a staggering inequality, and it is undeserved that many of the countries that are being the most affected did little to contribute to the cause of global warming. This is why developing countries were specifically chosen to be looked into opposed to the entire earth population. Now, that some context has been given, more specific examples and studies can be looked into.

Global warming may increase the risk of some infectious diseases, like malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and encephalitis. These diseases are spread by mosquitoes and other insects, and could become more common if a rise in temperature allows those insects to live farther north. Also, the increase in rainfall that is likely to occur with an increase in global temperature would serve to help increase the reproduction of the vectors. In February 1999, Britain's Institute of Animal Health linked outbreaks of the lethal horse fever virus in Africa to the El Nino phenomenon. The warming and increase in rainfall in Africa caused by El Nino led to many more horses being bitten by infected vectors. The scientists said their research shows this pattern is likely to happen with other vector-borne diseases when global warming occurs. Increased temperatures could also reduce the gestation periods of disease vectors, which could aid the breeding of strains resistant to pesticides. Scientists also hypothesize that algae

The practice of personalized medicine that aims to individualize the diagnosis of a disease and therapy according to the individual patient’s characteristics, such as clinical comorbidities and risk factors, can base on decisions of evidences and guidelines derived from population-based studies and clinical trials. Big data can help study disease patterns across geographies, based on multiple factors that contribute to the incidence of a specific disease. Researchers can benefit from information about trends or changing disease patterns over time and more significantly, regarding location shifts in disease patterns. Pattern analysis can be further extended to various types of epidemic spreads in plants and animals. Epidemic early warning systems

Leptospirosis is a bacterial infection with worldwide distribution. It can affect most mammals (Bharti and others 2003) but some species seem more susceptible, such as the dog and the human. It is a spirochaete infection and the infecting organism was traditionally identified by serological testing, however, modern methods using DNA hybridisation have been developed although many of these only allow identification to the species level (Jung and others 2015). The two most common serovars (L. canicola and L. icterohaemorrhagiae) have been the basis of leptospirosis vaccination in dogs for many years. There is now serological evidence of exposure to a much wider range of serovars including L. Grippotyphosa, L. Australis and L. Sejroe (Ellis 2010).

The ability of populations to survive and reproduce in specific environments are measures of adaptability (Dobzhansky, 1970). So when environmental conditions change, polar bears have an increase in environmental stressors. Rapid climatic warming may change the diversity of pathogens in polar bear populations. Pathogen diversity is the variety of viruses and diseases being spread in a population. Climate change exposes the Arctic species to new pathogens. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) has a crucial role in vertebrate immune systems (Weber, et al., 2013). According to Follman, Heuffer, and O’Hara (2011), living in the Arctic is a way the polar bears avoid such pathogens. However, slight environmental temperature shifts can translate

If the immune system is unable to stop the infection, the bacterium will multiply and then spread to the bloodstream, after which the first signs of disease are observed in the form of fever. The bacterium penetrates further into the bone marrow, liver, and bile ducts, from which bacteria are excreted into the bowel movements. (Easmon 2003)

“The rodents spread the plague from China to Europe and it hit Britain in 1348.”(Bates, Claire) So if the world is so populated more people will be homeless, and the disease could spread easier wiping out millions. The black death was also spread by people getting bites from infected rats, the disease travels through the body into the lungs, and when the person coughs or sneezes, the disease is transmitted into the air and can infect people who breath in that same air. So if the world becomes too over populated and there aren’t enough houses people will be living on the streets where disease could spread easier and faster just like the black death. “Indirect contact infections spread when an infected person sneezes or coughs, sending infectious droplets into the air.”(DIRECT…) So if everyone if coughing and sneezing then anyone who breathes in that contaminated air could get the disease. “Last year, it called dengue the “most rapidly spreading mosquito-borne viral disease” in the world—faster than West Nile virus or malaria.”(The deadly…) If this disease was to break out when the world is overpopulated a disease could take out almost half the entire human race.There are hundreds of diseases that can be spread by animals, some examples are all types of Influenza, Bubonic Plague, zoonotic diseases, HIV/AIDS, Ebola, and Polio. One disease is the Zika virus, it is spread by mosquito bites who bite women and when if the infected women gets pregnant the Zika virus transfers the virus to the child, once the child is born the child could be born with a fatal brain defect. When the world becomes more populated more people could get bit with more mosquitos and get the Zika virus and a whole new generation of kids could be born with a brain

“In the United States of America, for example, around 76 million cases of food-borne diseases, resulting in 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths, are estimated to occur each year.”