Introduction
Breast cancer is the third commonly diagnosed cancer in Australia and the most common in women. This report sets out to investiage the main pathologies of breast cancer including its aetiology, demographics in Australia and how it metastasies. It than explores the main 99mTc based radiopharmaceuticals used in bone imaging for the detection of these metastases and quantitively compares them, to determine the superiority of each. Finally the report compares the efficacy of bone scans compared against other diagnostic techniques to determine the superior method to detect bone metastases in breast cancer paitents.
Pathology
There are many factors that increase ones risk of developing breast cancer. The most common aetiology of
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It is estimated in Australia that 1 in 16 people will develop breast cancer by the time they turn 85. Breast cancer is the fourth most common form of cancer death in Australia. In 2012 there were 2819 record deaths from breast cancer in Australia and has a standard mortality rate of 11 in 100,000 people diagnosed and 1 in 74 once they have reached 85. Overall in Australia, the incidence of breast cancer is increasing rapidly from 5,368 people diagnosed in 1982 to 14,568 in 2011, with the standardised incidence rate increasing from 44 to 60 in every 100,000 people. While the number of deaths from breast cancer has increased in Australia from 1,435 in 1968 to 2819 in 2012 the overall survival rate has increased from 72% to 90% due to the growing and ageing population accompanied by increasing technologies (Cancer Australia, 2015).
Breast cancer metastases are defined when the localised breast cancer spreads to distant sites beyond the breast and axillary lymph nodes. The main sites for breast cancer metastasises include lymph nodes, bone, brain, liver and the lungs (Uematsu, et al 2005). The process of breast cancer metastases is as follows. Firstly, the primary tumour undergoes cell division and growth. This then causes the invasion of the primary tumour into the basement membrane tissue surrounding the cell. The tumour than moves into the bloodstream and/or lymph channels
Currently mammography and ultrasound are basic imaging techniques for detection and localization of breast tumor. Breast Ultrasound is a typically painless medical test that uses reflected sound waves for further evaluation of a breast abnormality or a specific area seen on mammography. Ultrasound can locate and measure abnormalities or changes to determine if a breast lump is solid or filled with fluid. A mammogram is an x-ray of the breast which may find tumors that are too small to feel. Women aged 40 to 74 years should have annual screening mammograms to lower chance of dying from breast cancer(2,15).Mammograms are less likely to find breast tumors in women younger than 50 years. This may
Depending on the time of diagnosis and the particular stage at which the cancer is present in the body, treatment options range from a mastectomy, chemotherapy, or surgery (Haas, 2008). A mastectomy is the surgical removal of the breast, it is an approach often taken to halt the spread of cancer cells to other parts of the body. Chemotherapy is an alternative to a treating the cancer. Chemotherapy for breast cancer is a systemic treatment, which affects most of the cells in your body. Most often chemotherapy is classified as the therapeutic use of chemicals to treat or control a particular disease. Potent drugs are used to kill or hinder the uncontrolled growth of cancer cells by interrupting their DNA, protein production, preventing cell division, starving them of their nutrients or blocking hormone receptors (Stephan, 2010).
The incidence rates of in situ breast cancer increased by 2.8% every year between 2005 and 2009.
Breast cancer can be acquired in many different ways. Genetics, gene mutations (5-10%) and risk factors including age,
Breast cancer is a malignant tumor in the glandular tissues of the breast. Such tumors, also called carcinomas, form when the chemical processes that control normal cell growth break down, enabling a single abnormal cell to multiply at a rapid rate (Hickman). Carcinomas,
Breast cancer is a type of cancer where a malignant tumor is formed in the breast, which continually grows and infects the surrounding tissues [1]. This type of cancer is the most common type of cancer found in women. On average about 26% of women developed breast cancer in 2015 [2]. There are multiple signs and symptoms that can help one become aware if they have the disease. The most prominent key feature is the presence of a lump in your breast or armpit. Such signs may be indicative of breast cancer. In addition changes in the breast and the skin around it are also good indicators. So if the skin around your breast as well as the surrounding nipple becomes puckered or dimpled, it is recommended to go and consult a physician. The inverting or crusting of the nipple may also present as symptoms. However, these are all early onset signs. If the cancer has been in your body for a longer period of time, one might experience things such as bone pain, nausea, weight loss, shortness of breath etc. This is usually an indicative point that the cancer has spread to different parts of the body. If the cancer continues to persist in the body without treatment, it can result in various detrimental effects. The symptoms one may already have are likely to worsen with the addition of new symptoms. Though every cancer differs in its effects and symptoms, the ideology behind it remains the same in that the body is unable to control cell division. Therefore, the cancer will continue to grow
In addition to invasive breast cancer, 60,290 new cases of in situ breast cancer weare expected to occur among women in 2015. Moreover, an estimated 40,290730 breast cancer deaths weare expected in 2015 [2]. However, as a result of advances in early detection and treatment, compared to today breast cancer patients can expect survival that is similar to age-matched women without the disease, [3]. Tthe 5-year relative survival for women diagnosed with localized breast cancer has increased from 80% in the 1950s to 899% today [2].
Breast cancer is a major burden of disease for females in Australia. It is defined as the abnormal growth and uncontrolled division in breast cells resulting in cancerous cells that can invade and damage surrounding tissue (Montaruli et al., 2012). In Australia, breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in women and is the second highest cause of cancer related death (Bech et al., 2012). On average, one in eight women are expected to develop breast cancer in their lifetime (Bech et al., 2012;Yu et al., 2014). The incidence of breast cancer worldwide is increasing annually and it affects both males and females. Breast cancer is, therefore, an important priority area for the Australian health system and is crucial to understand
A study conducted by Dr. Lineberger of the University of North Carolina on the molecular mechanisms of breast cancer progression noted that, “The development of breast cancer is thought to occur through a multi-step process. The majority of breast cancers
Breast tumors can be either “benign” (non-cancerous) or “malignant” (cancerous) and the type of the tumor can be identified by using the Tumor, Nodes and Metastasis (TNM) staging system and the disease stage can range from stage I to stage IV. In the stage 0 (carcinoma in situ), there is a high probability of developing invasive form of cancer in a short period of time. This staging system of breast cancer allows treatment options without surgical biopsy and therefore it is one of the most important factors in detecting breast tumors. Thus, a reliable procedure is required to accurately distinguish and diagnose
There are four stages of breast cancer. The Stage 0 is noninvasive breast cancer, that is, carcinoma in situ with no affected lymph nodes or metastasis. Stage zero is the most favorable. Now Stage 1 breast cancer is less than two centimeters in greatest dimension and is only in the breasts. In Stage 2, the cancer is no larger than two centimeters but it has spread to the lymph nodes under the arm. The
Breast cancer is one of the major causes of death in cancer patients all over the world. Tumor node- metastasis (TNM) is a standard staging system for breast cancer. TNM staging system also provides the basis for the prognosis for breast cancer. The prognosis for breast cancer is majorly based on two factors; tumor size and biological factors. However, these factors have been further divided into subdivisions and have been discussed. In this paper the stages of breast cancer have been discussed along with the prognosis of breast cancer in detail.
Most forms of breast cancers are not inherited. In fact, according to breastcancer.org only five to ten percent of breast cancer cases were hereditary. There are actually many factors that could contribute in increasing ones risk of getting breast cancer. One of the biggest factors in getting breast cancer is being a woman. Less than one percent of breast cancer cases will be in males. Most male breast are fat and not formed glands, which highly reduces the risk of a male getting breast cancer. Another factor would be being overweight. Fat cells make estrogen and if there is an excessive amount of fat, then the body will make more estrogen which can make certain types of breast cancers to develop and grow.
Breast cancers can be classified by different schemes. Each of these aspects influences treatment response and prognosis. Description of a breast cancer would optimally include all of these classification aspects, as well as other
Accountable for the vast majority of cancer deaths, metastasis is the complex process by which the cancer cells spread from the primary site to distant sites throughout the body by way of increased tumor invasiveness. Tumor cells persist in replication and may inadequately differentiate into specialized cells as they attain an aggressive manner. Given that it is among the most commonly diagnosed cancers in the United States, approximately 1 in 8 women and 1 in 1,000 men in America may develop breast cancer throughout their life. Via the bloodstream or lymphatic system, main sites of metastasis in breast cancer are the bone, brain, liver, and lung. In view of the fact that breast cancer is immunogenic, tumor development and progression may be directly associated with immunosuppressive factors. On account of an expansion or increase of activation in CD8+ T cells and inhibition or decrease in myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), the tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) may allow for immune suppression in breast cancer patients. In a similar manner, standard immunotherapy and checkpoint blockade brings about an optimal clinical response in the regulation of immunity. Scientific research and publications regarding mutations on the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes will be discussed in this term paper to reflect on the lengths of multiple aspects of breast cancer metastasis by way of cellular processes of clinical patterns in the tumor microenvironment. The assessment studies may provide