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All Textbook Solutions for Biology Today and Tomorrow without Physiology (MindTap Course List)
Figure 1.7 Taxonomic classification of five species that are related at different levels. Each species has been assigned to ever more inclusive groups, or taxa: in this case, from genus to domain. From the left, Joaquim Gaspar; kymkemp.com; Sylvie Bouchard/Shutterstock.com; Courtesy of Melissa S. Green, www.flickr.com/photos/henkimaa; Grodana Sarkotic. Figure It Out: Which of the plants shown here are in the same order?D. The researchers painted out the spots of some butterflies, cut the sound-making part of the wings on others, and did both to a third group; then exposed each butterfly to a hungry blue tit for 30 minutes. Results are listed on the right. Figure It Out: What percentage of butterflies with spots painted and wings cut survived the test?Figure 1.15 Example of error bars in a graph. This graph was adapted from the peacock butterfly research described in Section 1.5. The researchers recorded the number of times each butterfly flicked its wings in response to an attack by a bird. The squares represent average frequency of wing flicking for each sample set of butterflies. The error bars that extend above and below the dots indicate the range of valuesthe sampling error. Figure It Out: What was the fastest rate at which a butterfly with no spots or sound flicked its wings?1DID1SQ2SQ______ is the transmission of DNA to offspring. a. Reproduction b. Development c. Homeostasis d. InheritanceA process by which an organism produces offspring is called __________. a. reproduction b. development c. homeostasis d. inheritance5SQ____________ move around for at least part of their life.7SQDNA _______. a. guides form b. is the basis of traits c. is transmitted from and function parents to offspring d. all of the abovebutterfly is a(n) _____ (choose all that apply). a. organism b. domain c. species d. eukaryote e. consumer f. producer g. prokaryote h. traitA bacterium is _____ (choose all that apply). a. an organism b. an animal c. single-celled d. a eukaryoteBacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are three _____.A control group is ______. a. a set of individuals that have a characteristic under study or receive an experimental treatment b. the standard against which an experimental group is compared c. the experiment that gives conclusive results13SQMatch the terms with the most suitable description.In one survey, fifteen randomly selected students were found to be taller than 6 feet. This data led to the conclusion that the average height of a student is greater than 6 feet. This is an example of __________. a. experimental error b. sampling error c. a subjective opinion d. experimental biasA person is declared to be dead upon the irreversible ceasing of spontaneous body functions: brain activity, or blood circulation and respiration. However, only about 1% of a persons cells have to die in order for all of these things to happen. How can someone be dead when 99% of his or her cells are still alive?2CTWhy would you think twice about ordering from a restaurant menu that lists only the second part of the species name (not the genus) of its offerings? Hint: Look up Ursus americanus, Ceanothus americanus, Bufo americanus, Homarus americanus, Lepus americanus, and Nicrophorus americanus.Once there was a highly intelligent turkey that had nothing to do but reflect on the worlds regularities. Morning always started out with the sky turning light, followed by the masters footsteps, which were always followed by the appearance of food. Other things varied, but food always followed footsteps. The sequence of events was so predictable that it eventually became the basis of the turkeys theory about the goodness of the world. One morning, after more than 100 confirmations of this theory, the turkey listened for the masters footsteps, heard them, and had its head chopped off. Any scientific theory is modified or discarded upon discovery of contradictory evidence. The absence of absolute certainty has led some people to conclude that theories are irrelevant because they can change. If that is so, should we stop doing scientific research? Why or why not?In 2005, researcher Woo-suk Hwang reported that he had made immortal stem cells from human patients. His research was hailed as a breakthrough for people affected by degenerative diseases, because stem cells may be used to repair a persons own damaged tissues. Hwang published his results in a peer-reviewed journal. In 2006, the journal retracted his paper after other scientists discovered that Hwangs group had faked their data. Does the incident show that results of scientific studies cannot be trusted? Or does it confirm the usefulness of a scientific approach, because other scientists discovered and exposed the fraud?A. The first shell corresponds to the first energy level, and it can hold up to 2 electrons. Hydrogen has one proton, so it has 1 electron and one vacancy. A helium atom has 2 protons, 2 electrons, and no vacancies. B. The second shell corresponds to the second energy level, and it can hold up to 8 electrons. Carbon has 6 electrons, so its first shell is full. Its second shell has 4 electrons and four vacancies. Oxygen has 8 electrons and two vacancies. Neon has 10 electrons and no vacancies. C. The third shell corresponds to the third energy level, and it can hold up to 8 electrons. A sodium atom has 11 electrons, so its first two shells are full; the third shell has one electron. Thus, sodium has seven vacancies. Chlorine has 17 electrons and one vacancy. Argon has 18 electrons and no vacancies. Figure It Out: Which of these models have unpaired electrons in their outer shell?B. A chlorine atom (Cl) becomes a negatively charged chloride ion (Cl) when it gains an electron and fills the vacancy in its third, outermost shell. Figure It Out: Does a chloride ion have an unpaired electron?Figure 2.12 A pH scale. Here, red dots signify hydrogen ions (H+) and blue dots signify hydroxyl ions (OH). Also shown are the approximate pH values for some common solutions. This pH scale ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic). A change of one unit on the scale corresponds to a tenfold change in the amount of H+ ions. Photos, JupiterImages Corporation. Figure It Out: What is the approximate pH of cola?Figure 2.17 Fatty acids. Double bonds in the tails are highlighted in red. A. The tail of stearic acid is fully saturated with hydrogen atoms. B. Linoleic acid, with two double bonds, is unsaturated. The first double bond occurs at the sixth carbon from the end of the tail, so linoleic acid is called an omega-6 fatty acid. Omega-6 and C. omega-3 fatty acids are essential fatty acids, which means your body does not make them and they must come from food. D. The hydrogen atoms around the double bond in oleic acid are on the same side of the tail. Most other naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids have these cis bonds. E. Hydrogenation creates abundant trans bonds, with hydrogen atoms on opposite sides of the tail. Figure It Out: Are the double bonds in linolenic acid cis or trans?Effects of Dietary Fats on Lipoprotein Levels Cholesterol that is made by the liver or that enters the body from food does not dissolve in blood, so it is carried through the bloodstream by lipoproteins. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) carries cholesterol to body tissues such as artery walls, where it can form deposits associated with cardiovascular disease. Thus, LDL is often called bad cholesterol. Highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) carries cholesterol away from tissues to the liver for disposal, so HDL is often called good cholesterol. In 1990, Ronald Mensink and Martijn Katan published a study that tested the effects of different dietary fats on blood lipoprotein levels. Their results are shown in Figure 2.23. In which group was the level of LDL (bad cholesterol) highest?Effects of Dietary Fats on Lipoprotein Levels Cholesterol that is made by the liver or that enters the body from food does not dissolve in blood, so it is carried through the bloodstream by lipoproteins. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) carries cholesterol to body tissues such as artery walls, where it can form deposits associated with cardiovascular disease. Thus, LDL is often called bad cholesterol. Highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) carries cholesterol away from tissues to the liver for disposal, so HDL is often called good cholesterol. In 1990, Ronald Mensink and Martijn Katan published a study that tested the effects of different dietary fats on blood lipoprotein levels. Their results are shown in Figure 2.23. In which group was the level of HDL (good cholesterol) lowest?Effects of Dietary Fats on Lipoprotein Levels Cholesterol that is made by the liver or that enters the body from food does not dissolve in blood, so it is carried through the bloodstream by lipoproteins. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) carries cholesterol to body tissues such as artery walls, where it can form deposits associated with cardiovascular disease. Thus, LDL is often called bad cholesterol. Highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) carries cholesterol away from tissues to the liver for disposal, so HDL is often called good cholesterol. In 1990, Ronald Mensink and Martijn Katan published a study that tested the effects of different dietary fats on blood lipoprotein levels. Their results are shown in Figure 2.23. Figure 2.23 Effect of diet on lipoprotein levels. Researchers placed 59 men and women on a diet in which 10 percent of their daily energy intake consisted of cis fatty acids, trans fatty acids, or saturated fats. Blood LDL and HDL levels were measured after three weeks on the diet; averaged results are shown in mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter of blood). All subjects were tested on each of the diets. The ratio of LDL to HDL is also shown. Source, Mensink RP, Katan MB, Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects. NEJM 323(7):43945. An elevated risk of heart disease has been correlated with increasing LDL-to-HDL ratios. Rank the three diets according to their predicted effect on cardiovascular health.1SQWhich element has only one proton?The mutual attraction of opposite charges holds atoms together as molecules in a(n) _____ bond. a. ionic b. hydrogen c. polar covalent d. nonpolar covalentA salt does not release __________ in water. a. ions b. energy c. H+A(n) _______ substance repels water. a. acidic b. basic c. hydrophobic d. polarWhen dissolved in water, a(n) _____ donates H+ and a(n) ______ accepts H+. a. acid; base b. base; acid c. buffer; solute d. base; buffer_________ is a monosaccharide. a. Glucose b. Sucrose c. Ribose d. Starch e. a and c f. a, b, and cUnlike saturated fatty acids, the tails of unsaturated fatty acids incorporate one or more _______. a. phosphate groups b. glycerols c. double bonds d. single bondsWhich of the following is a class of molecules that encompasses all of the other molecules listed? a. triglycerides b. fatty acids c. waxes d. steroids e. lipids f. phospholipids10SQ11SQ12SQ13SQMatch the molecules with the best description.Match each molecule with its component(s).Alchemists were the forerunners of modern-day chemists. Many of these medieval scholars and philosophers spent their lives trying to transform lead (atomic number 82) into gold (atomic number 79). Explain why they never succeeded.2CTPolonium is a rare element with 33 radioisotopes. The most common one, 210Po, has 82 protons and 128 neutrons. When 210Po decays, it emits an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons). 210Po decay is tricky to detect because alpha particles do not carry very much energy compared to other forms of radiation. For example, they can be stopped by a single sheet of paper or a few inches of air. That is one reason that authorities failed to discover toxic amounts of 210Po in the body of former KGB agent Alexander Litvinenko until after he died suddenly and mysteriously in 2006. What element does an atom of 210Po become after it emits an alpha particle?In the following list, identify the carbohydrate, the fatty acid, the amino acid, and the polypeptide: a. NH2CHRCOOH b. C6H12O6 c. (methionine)20 d. CH3(CH2)16COOH1FIOOrganelles and Cystic Fibrosis A plasma membrane transport protein called CFTR moves chloride ions out of cells lining cavities and ducts of the lungs, liver, pancreas, intestines, and reproductive system. Water that follows the ions creates a thin film that allows mucus to slide easily through these structures. People with cystic fibrosis (CF) have too few copies of the CFTR protein in the plasma membranes of their cells. Not enough chloride ions leave the cells, and so not enough water leaves them either. The result is thick, dry mucus that clogs the airways to the lungs and other passages. Symptoms include difficulty breathing and chronic lung infections. In 2000, researchers tracked the cellular location of the CFTR protein as it was being produced in cells from people with CF (Figure 3.13). Figure 3.13 Cellular location of the CFTR protein. Graph compares the amounts of CFTR protein found in endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles travel in g from ER to Golgi, and Golgi bodies in CF cells and normal cells. Which organelle contains the least amount of CFTR protein in normal cells? In CF cells?Organelles and Cystic Fibrosis A plasma membrane transport protein called CFTR moves chloride ions out of cells lining cavities and ducts of the lungs, liver, pancreas, intestines, and reproductive system. Water that follows the ions creates a thin film that allows mucus to slide easily through these structures. People with cystic fibrosis (CF) have too few copies of the CFTR protein in the plasma membranes of their cells. Not enough chloride ions leave the cells, and so not enough water leaves them either. The result is thick, dry mucus that clogs the airways to the lungs and other passages. Symptoms include difficulty breathing and chronic lung infections. In 2000, researchers tracked the cellular location of the CFTR protein as it was being produced in cells from people with CF (Figure 3.13). Figure 3.13 Cellular location of the CFTR protein. Graph compares the amounts of CFTR protein found in endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles traveling from ER to Golgi, and Golgi bodies in CF cells and normal cells. In which organelle is the amount of CFTR protein most similar in both types of cells?3DIDAll cells have these three things in common: a. cytoplasm, DNA, and organelles with membranes b. a plasma membrane, DNA, and a nuclear envelope c. cytoplasm, DNA, and a plasma membrane d. a cell wall, cytoplasm, and DNAUnlike eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells ________. a. have no plasma membrane b. have RNA but not DNA c. have no nucleus d. a and cEvery cell is descended from another cell. This idea is part of _________. a. evolution b. the theory of heredity c. the cell theory d. cell biology4SQTrue or false? Some protists start out life with no nucleus.Cell membranes consist mainly of ________ and ________. a. lipids; carbohydrates b. phospholipids; proteins c. lipids; carbohydrates d. phospholipids; ECM7SQIn a lipid bilayer, the of all the lipid molecules are sandwiched between all of the __________. a. hydrophilic tails; hydrophobic heads b. hydrophilic heads; hydrophilic tails c. hydrophobic tails; hydrophilic heads d. hydrophobic heads; hydrophilic tailsThe main function of the endomembrane system is ___________. a. building and modifying proteins and lipids b. isolating DNA from toxic substances c. secreting extracellular matrix onto the cell surface d. producing ATP by aerobic respirationEnzymes contained in __________ break down worn-out organelles, bacteria, and other particles. a. lysosomes b. mitochondria c. endoplasmic reticulum d. peroxisomesPut the following structures in order according to the pathway of a secreted protein: a. plasma membrane b. Golgi bodies c. endoplasmic reticulum d. post-Golgi vesiclesNo animal cell has a ______. a. plasma membrane b. flagellum c. lysosome d. cell wall13SQ14SQMatch each cell component with its main function.In a classic episode of Star Trek, a gigantic amoeba engulfs an entire starship. Spock blows the cell to bits before it has a chance to reproduce. Think of at least one problem a biologist would have with this particular scenario.2CTWhat type of micrograph is shown below? Is the organism pictured prokaryotic or eukaryotic? How can you tell?Figure 4.5 Energy inputs and outputs in chemical reactions. 1 Some reactions convert molecules with lower energy to molecules with higher energy, so they require a net energy input in order to proceed. 2 Other reactions convert molecules with higher energy to molecules with lower energy, so they end with an energy release Figure It Out: Which law of thermodynamics explains energy inputs and outputs in chemical reactions?Figure 4.10 Enzymes, temperature, and pH. Each enzyme works best within a characteristic range of conditionsgenerally the same environmental conditions in which the enzyme normally occurs. Figure It Out: At what temperature does the E.coli DNA polymerase work fastest?3FIO4FIOThe genus Ferroplasma consists of a few species of acid-loving archaea. One species, F. acidarmanus, was discovered to be the main component of slime streamers (a type of biofilm) deep inside an abandoned California copper mine (Figure 4.11A). F. acidarmanus cells use an ancient energy-harvesting pathway that combines oxygen with ironsulfur compounds in minerals such as pyrite. This reaction dissolves the minerals, so groundwater that seeps into the mine ends up with extremely high concentrations of metal ions such as copper, zinc, cadmium, and arsenic. The reaction also produces sulfuric acid, which lowers the pH of the water around the cells to zero. Despite living in an environment with a composition similar to hot battery acid, F. acidarmanus cells maintain their internal pH at a cozy 5.0. Thus, researchers investigating Ferroplasma metabolic enzymes were surprised to discover that most of the cells enzymes function best at very low pH (Figure 4.11B). A. Deep inside one of the most toxic sites in the United States: Iron Mountain Mine, in California. The water in this stream, which is about 1 meter (3 feet) wide in this photo, is hot (around 40C, or 104F), heavily laden with arsenic and other toxic metals, and has a pH of zero. Slime streamers growing in it are a biofilm dominated by a species of archaea, Ferroplasma acidarmanus. B. pH profiles of four enzymes isolated from F. acidarmus. Researchers had expected these enzymes to function best at the cells cytoplasmic pH (5.0). What does the dashed line signify?2DID3DID1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQIons or molecules tend to diffuse from a region where they are _______ (more/less) concentrated to another where they are _______ (more/less) concentrated.10SQ11SQ12SQA transport protein requires ATP to pump sodium ions across a membrane. This is a case of ______. a. passive transport b. active transport c. facilitated diffusion d. a and c14SQ15SQ1CTWater molecules tend to diffuse in response to their own concentration gradient. How can water be more or less concentrated?Dixie Bee wanted to make JELL-O shots for her next party, but felt guilty about encouraging her guests to consume alcohol. She tried to compensate for the toxicity of the alcohol by adding pieces of healthy fresh pineapple to the shots, but when she did, the JELL-O never solidified. What happened? Hint: JELL-O is mainly sugar and a gelatinous mixture of proteins.The enzyme trypsin is sold as a dietary enzyme supplement. Explain what happens to trypsin taken with food.5CTBiofuels A lot of energy is locked up in the chemical bonds of molecules made by plants. That energy can fuel consumers, as when an animal cell powers ATP synthesis by aerobic respiration. It can also fuel our cars, which run on energy released by burning biofuels or fossil fuels. Both processes are fundamentally the same: They release energy by breaking the bonds of organic molecules. Both use oxygen to break those bonds, and both produce carbon dioxide. Unlike fossil fuels, biofuels are a renewable source of energy: We can always make more of them simply by growing more plants. Also unlike fossil fuels, biofuels do not contribute to global climate change, because growing plant matter for fuel recycles carbon that is already in the atmosphere. Corn, soy, sugarcane, and other food crops are rich in oils, starches, and sugars that can be easily converted to biofuels. The starch in corn kernels, for example, can be enzymatically broken down to glucose, which is fermented to ethanol by bacteria or yeast. However, growing food crops for biofuel production typically requires a lot of energy (in the form of fossil fuels) and it damages the environment. Making biofuels from other plant matter such as weeds or agricultural waste requires additional steps, because these materials contain a higher proportion of cellulose. Breaking down this tough carbohydrate to its glucose monomers adds cost to the biofuel product. In 2006, David Tilman and his colleagues published the results of a 10-year study comparing the net energy output of various biofuels. The researchers made biofuel from a mixture of native perennial grasses grown without irrigation, fertilizer, pesticides, or herbicides, in sandy soil that was so depleted by intensive agriculture that it had been abandoned. The energy content of this biofuel and the energy it took to produce it were measured and compared with that of biofuels made from food crops (Figure 5.16). About how much energy did ethanol produced from one hectare of corn yield? How much energy did it take to grow and produce that ethanol?Biofuels A lot of energy is locked up in the chemical bonds of molecules made by plants. That energy can fuel consumers, as when an animal cell powers ATP synthesis by aerobic respiration. It can also fuel our cars, which run on energy released by burning biofuels or fossil fuels. Both processes are fundamentally the same: They release energy by breaking the bonds of organic molecules. Both use oxygen to break those bonds, and both produce carbon dioxide. Unlike fossil fuels, biofuels are a renewable source of energy: We can always make more of them simply by growing more plants. Also unlike fossil fuels, biofuels do not contribute to global climate change, because growing plant matter for fuel recycles carbon that is already in the atmosphere. Corn, soy, sugarcane, and other food crops are rich in oils, starches, and sugars that can be easily converted to biofuels. The starch in corn kernels, for example, can be enzymatically broken down to glucose, which is fermented to ethanol by bacteria or yeast. However, growing food crops for biofuel production typically requires a lot of energy (in the form of fossil fuels) and it damages the environment. Making biofuels from other plant matter such as weeds or agricultural waste requires additional steps, because these materials contain a higher proportion of cellulose. Breaking down this tough carbohydrate to its glucose monomers adds cost to the biofuel product. In 2006, David Tilman and his colleagues published the results of a 10-year study comparing the net energy output of various biofuels. The researchers made biofuel from a mixture of native perennial grasses grown without irrigation, fertilizer, pesticides, or herbicides, in sandy soil that was so depleted by intensive agriculture that it had been abandoned. The energy content of this biofuel and the energy it took to produce it were measured and compared with that of biofuels made from food crops (Figure 5.16). Which of the three crops required the least amount of land to produce a given amount of biofuel energy?Biofuels A lot of energy is locked up in the chemical bonds of molecules made by plants. That energy can fuel consumers, as when an animal cell powers ATP synthesis by aerobic respiration. It can also fuel our cars, which run on energy released by burning biofuels or fossil fuels. Both processes are fundamentally the same: They release energy by breaking the bonds of organic molecules. Both use oxygen to break those bonds, and both produce carbon dioxide. Unlike fossil fuels, biofuels are a renewable source of energy: We can always make more of them simply by growing more plants. Also unlike fossil fuels, biofuels do not contribute to global climate change, because growing plant matter for fuel recycles carbon that is already in the atmosphere. Corn, soy, sugarcane, and other food crops are rich in oils, starches, and sugars that can be easily converted to biofuels. The starch in corn kernels, for example, can be enzymatically broken down to glucose, which is fermented to ethanol by bacteria or yeast. However, growing food crops for biofuel production typically requires a lot of energy (in the form of fossil fuels) and it damages the environment. Making biofuels from other plant matter such as weeds or agricultural waste requires additional steps, because these materials contain a higher proportion of cellulose. Breaking down this tough carbohydrate to its glucose monomers adds cost to the biofuel product. In 2006, David Tilman and his colleagues published the results of a 10-year study comparing the net energy output of various biofuels. The researchers made biofuel from a mixture of native perennial grasses grown without irrigation, fertilizer, pesticides, or herbicides, in sandy soil that was so depleted by intensive agriculture that it had been abandoned. The energy content of this biofuel and the energy it took to produce it were measured and compared with that of biofuels made from food crops (Figure 5.16). The production of which biofuel was most efficient (which had the highest ratio of energy output to energy input)?Most of the carbon that land plants use for photosynthesis comes from ______. a. glucose b. the atmosphere c. water d. soil2SQWhich of the following statements is incorrect? a. Pigments absorb light of certain wavelengths only. b. Many accessory pigments are multipurpose molecules. c. Chlorophyll a is green because it absorbs green light.4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ10SQ11SQ12SQ13SQ14SQ15SQ1CTHow is the function of the thylakoid membrane similar to that of the inner mitochondrial membrane?3CT4CT1FIO2FIO1DID2DID3DID4DID1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ10SQEnergy that drives the attachment of a nucleotide to the end of a growing strand of DNA comes from ______. a. phosphate-group transfers from ATP b. DNA polymerase c. the nucleotide itself d. a and c12SQ13SQ14SQ15SQ1CT2CT1VQ1FIO2FIO1DID2DID3DID1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ10SQ11SQ12SQ13SQ14SQ15SQ16SQ1CT2CT3CT4CT1VQ2VQ1FIO2FIO1.1DID1.2DID1.3DID2.1DID2.2DID2.3DID1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ10SQ11SQ12SQ13SQ14SQ15SQ1CT3CT4CT5CT1VQ1FIO2FIO3FIO1DID2DID3DID1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ10SQ11SQ12SQ13SQ14SQ15SQ1CT2CT3CT4CT5CT1FIO1DID2DID3DID4DID1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ10SQ11SQ12SQ13SQ14SQ15SQ1CT2CT1VQ1FIO2FIO3FIO1DID2DID1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ10SQ11SQ12SQ13SQ14SQ15SQ1CT2CT1VQ1FIO2FIO3FIO1DID2DID3DID4DID1SQ2SQ3SQ4SQ5SQ6SQ7SQ8SQ9SQ10SQ11SQ12SQ13SQ14SQ15SQ1CT2CT3CT4CT1FIO2FIO